Journals / Kastamonu Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi / 2026 / Cilt: 28 Sayı: 1

Geopolitics of Lithium: Strategic Divergence in Latin Amerikca amid Global Rivalry

Lityumun Jeopolitiği: Küresel Rekabet Ortamında Latin Amerika'da Stratejik Ayrışma

Gökhan Katıtaş(MARMARA ÜNİVERSİTESİ)0000-0003-0041-7669
Pages
363–392
Publication Date
2026-06-30
🏛️Bibliographic metadata and full text access for this article are provided via DergiPark.
DergiPark Record ↗
✨

AI Summary & Key Takeaways

AI Insight
⚡ TL;DR(Too Long; Didn't Read)

Findings reveal that the global lithium market has undergone a ‘Bifurcation,’ creating a ‘geopolitical premium’ gap between Western and Chinese-led markets.

📌 3 Key Takeaways

🎯
Objective & Hypothesis:IIn the 21st-century age of polycrisis, situated at the intersection of the energy transition and the U.S.-China hegemonic rivalry, lithium has transformed into one of the most strategic assets of the modern geoeconomic architecture.
📊
Key Findings & Data:Latin America’s ‘Lithium Triangle’ (Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile) and Mexico, which host the majority of global reserves, have failed to realize the anticipated OPEC-style regional cooperation; on the contrary, as of 2025, they have experienced a profound strategic divergence across statist, hybrid, and liberal models.
💡
Conclusion & Impact:Findings reveal that the global lithium market has undergone a ‘Bifurcation,’ creating a ‘geopolitical premium’ gap between Western and Chinese-led markets.
🔬Design:Modeling & Simulation
📍Scope:2025 Verileri
⚙️Variables:Lityum Jeopolitiği · Kaynak Milliyetçiliği · Jeoekonomi

Abstract

IIn the 21st-century age of polycrisis, situated at the intersection of the energy transition and the U.S.-China hegemonic rivalry, lithium has transformed into one of the most strategic assets of the modern geoeconomic architecture. Latin America’s ‘Lithium Triangle’ (Argentina, Bolivia, and Chile) and Mexico, which host the majority of global reserves, have failed to realize the anticipated OPEC-style regional cooperation; on the contrary, as of 2025, they have experienced a profound strategic divergence across statist, hybrid, and liberal models. This study examines this divergence through the lens of ‘Structural Entrapment’ across three integrated analytical axes: a geopolitical framework synthesizing state capacity and industrial strategy with weaponized interdependence and regional security complex theories, and the theory of ecological unequal exchange. The selected cases are analyzed using Structured and Focused Comparative Case Analysis and process-tracing methods. Findings reveal that the global lithium market has undergone a ‘Bifurcation,’ creating a ‘geopolitical premium’ gap between Western and Chinese-led markets. Argentina has capitalized on this process by assuming the role of a ‘Geopolitical Pivot’ through its RIGI regime; meanwhile, Chile, with its ‘Regulatory State’ reflex, has prioritized rent maximization, thereby limiting investment flexibility. Bolivia and Mexico have become isolated due to the ‘Capacity Trap,’ internal political deadlocks, and geopolitical pressures originating from the USMCA. Furthermore, the study identifies that the European Union has added a new normative barrier to structural entrapment through its traceability standards, and that production has created ‘Green Sacrifice Zones’ in the region due to local water crises. In conclusion, the study proves that lithium policies in Latin America are shaped by the structural entrapment between state capacity, military-security priorities, and ecological limits, rather than ideological discourses.

Özet

21. yüzyılın polikriz çağında, enerji dönüşümü ve ABD-Çin hegemonik rekabetinin kesişim noktasında yer alan lityum, modern jeoekonomik mimarinin en stratejik varlıklarından birine dönüşmüştür. Küresel rezervlerin çoğunluğunu barındıran Latin Amerika’nın ‘Lityum Üçgeni’ (Arjantin, Bolivya, Şili) ve Meksika, beklenen OPEC tipi bölgesel iş birliğini hayata geçirememiş; aksine 2025 yılı itibarıyla devletçi, hibrit ve liberal modeller ekseninde derin bir stratejik ayrışma yaşamıştır. Bu çalışma, söz konusu ayrışmayı ‘Yapısal Sıkışmışlık’ kavramı üzerinden; devlet kapasitesi ve endüstriyel strateji, silahlaşmış karşılıklı bağımlılık ve bölgesel güvenlik kompleksi teorilerini sentezleyen jeopolitik çerçeve ile ekolojik eşitsiz değişim teorisi olmak üzere üç bütünleşik eksende incelemektedir. Çalışmada seçili vakalar, Yapılandırılmış ve Odaklanmış Karşılaştırmalı Vaka Analizi ve süreç takibi yöntemleriyle analiz edilmektedir. Bulgular, küresel lityum piyasasının ‘Bifurkasyon’a uğrayarak Batı ve Çin pazarları arasında bir “jeopolitik prim” farkı oluşturduğunu ortaya koymaktadır. Arjantin, RIGI rejimiyle ‘Jeopolitik Pivot’ rolü üstlenerek bu süreçten faydalanırken; Şili, ‘Düzenleyici Devlet’ refleksiyle rant maksimizasyonunu önceleyerek yatırım esnekliğini sınırlandırmıştır. Bolivya ve Meksika ise ‘Kapasite Tuzağı’, iç siyasi kilitlenmeler ve USMCA kaynaklı jeopolitik baskılar nedeniyle izole olmuştur. Ayrıca Avrupa Birliği’nin, getirdiği izlenebilirlik standartlarıyla yapısal sıkışmışlığa yeni bir normatif bariyer eklediği ve üretimin yerel su krizleriyle bölgede ‘Yeşil Kurban Bölgeleri’ yarattığı tespit edilmiştir. Sonuç olarak çalışma, Latin Amerika’daki lityum politikalarının ideolojik söylemlerden ziyade; devlet kapasitesi, askeri güvenlik öncelikleri ve ekolojik sınırlar arasındaki yapısal sıkışmışlık tarafından şekillendiğini kanıtlamaktadır.

🔖

Cite This Article

Katıtaş, G. (2026). Geopolitics of Lithium: Strategic Divergence in Latin Amerikca amid Global Rivalry. Kastamonu Üniversitesi İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, Cilt: 28 Sayı: 1, 363–392. https://doi.org/10.21180/iibfdkastamonu.1860882

📄 Full Text PDF Viewer

📄

PDF görüntüleyici hazırlanıyor...

References (54)

  1. Arcadium Lithium (2025). Form 10-K. Erişim adresi: https://minedocs.com/28/Arcadium-Lithium-F10-K-2024-02272025.pdf, Erişim tarihi: 01.12.2025.
  2. Bacanora Lithium (2018). Technical Report on the Feasibility Study for the Sonora Lithium Project, Mexico. Erişim adresi: https://bacanoralithium.com/_userfiles/pages/files/documents/bacanorafstechnicalreport25012018_compressed.pdf, Erişim tarihi: 28.11.2025.
  3. Baker Pineda, J. C. (2025). The Review of the USMCA 2026 and the Future of Trade Relations in North America. Inter-American Dialogue. Erişim adresi: https://thedialogue.org/blogs/2025/11/the-review-of-the-usmca-2026-and-the-future-of-trade-relations-in-north-america, Erişim tarihi: 05.12.2025.
  4. Barbosa, A. (2025). Lithium Triangle’s Potential Powerhouses Face Challenges in Project Progression. S&P Global. Erişim adresi: https://www.spglobal.com/energy/en/news-research/latest-news/metals/032425-lithium-triangles-potential-powerhouses-face-challenges-in-project-progression, Erişim tarihi: 05.12.2025.
  5. BHRC (2025). Bolivia: Protests in Potosi Demand Legislation to Guarantee Better Benefits for Local Communities and Larger Royalties from Extraction of Lithium. Business & Human Rights Research Center. Erişim adresi: https://www.business-humanrights.org/tr/latest-news/bolivia-protests-in-potosi-demand-legislation-to-guarantee-better-benefits-for-local-communities-and-larger-royalties-from-extraction-of-lithium/, Erişim tarihi: 02.12.2025.
  6. Bunker, S. G. (1985). Underdeveloping the Amazon: Extraction, Unequal Exchange, and the Failure of the Modern State. University of Illinois Press.
  7. Buzan, B. & Wæver, O. (2003). Regions and Powers: The Structure of International Security. Cambridge University Press.
  8. CAEM (2025). Reporte Mensual de Datos y Análisis del Sector Minero (2025). Erişim adresi: https://caem.com.ar/storage/2025/11/202508-reporte-mensual-de-datos-y-analisis-del-sector-minero-caem.pdf, Erişim tarihi: 30.11.2025.
  9. Camimex (2025). Informe Anual 2025: Situación de la Minería en México en 2024. Cámara Minera de México. Erişim adresi: https://camimex.org.mx/application/files/2417/5268/1322/InfoCamimex2025.pdf, Erişim tarihi: 02.12.2025.
  10. CELS (2025). Informe CIDH 2024: Situación de los Derechos Humanos en Argentina. Erişim adresi: https://www.cels.org.ar/web/2025/05/informe-cidh-2024-ddhh-en-argentina, Erişim tarihi: 29.11.2025.
  11. CEPAL (2025). La Inversión Extranjera Directa en América Latina y el Caribe 2025. Naciones Unidas. Erişim adresi: https://www.cepal.org/es/publicaciones/82116-la-inversion-extranjera-directa-america-latina-caribe-2025, Erişim tarihi: 30.11.2025.
  12. Climate Home News (2025). Bolivia’s Shift to the Right Renews Ambition to Mine Vast Lithium Reserves. Erişim adresi: https://www.climatechangenews.com/2025/10/28/bolivias-shift-to-the-right-renews-ambition-to-mine-vast-lithium-reserves, Erişim tarihi: 01.12.2025.
  13. CNA (1994). Art. 124. Constitución de la Nación Argentina. Erişim adresi: https://www.congreso.gob.ar/constitucionSeccion4Cap2.php, Erişim tarihi: 02.12.2025.
  14. Cochilco (2025a). Informe del Mercado del Litio: Proyección 2025-2026. Erişim adresi: https://www.cochilco.cl/web/informe-mercado-del-litio-proyeccion-2025-2026-2, Erişim tarihi: 29.11.2025.
  15. Cochilco (2025b). Informe del Mercado del Litio: Proyección 2024-2025. Erişim adresi: https://www.cochilco.cl/web/informe-mercado-del-litio-proyeccion-2024-2025-2/, Erişim tarihi: 29.11.2025.
  16. Coe, N. M. & Yeung, H. W. C. (2015). Global Production Networks: Theorizing Economic Development in an Interconnected World. Oxford University Press.
  17. Consulate General of Argentina in New York (2025). Large Investment Incentive Scheme (RIGI): Guide for Investors. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, International Trade and Worship. Erişim adresi: https://cnyor.cancilleria.gob.ar/en/5-large-investment-incentive-scheme-rigi-guide-investors, Erişim tarihi: 29.03.2026.
  18. Dialogue Earth (2025). Bolivia’s Lithium Plans Remain Uncertain as Election Looms. Erişim adresi: https://dialogue.earth/en/business/bolivias-lithium-plans-remain-uncertain-as-election-looms, Erişim tarihi: 30.11.2025.
  19. Discovery Alert (2025a). Bolivia Lithium Riches: Challenges and Opportunities 2025. Erişim adresi: https://discoveryalert.com.au/bolivia-lithium-riches-challenges-opportunities-2025/, Erişim tarihi: 29.11.2025.
  20. Discovery Alert (2025b). Lithium Market Correction: China 2025 Impacts. Erişim adresi: https://discoveryalert.com.au/lithium-market-correction-china-2025-impacts/, Erişim tarihi: 29.11.2025.
  21. DNPEM (2025a). Litio: Panorama Global del Mercado del Litio y el Potencial Litífero de Argentina (Junio 2025). Secretaría de Minería de la Nación. Erişim adresi: https://www.argentina.gob.ar/sites/default/files/informe_litio_junio_2025.pdf, Erişim tarihi: 01.12.2025.
  22. DNPEM (2025b). Compendio Estadístico de la Actividad Minera: Metalífera y Compuestos de Litio (Primer semestre 2025). Secretaría de Minería de la Nación. Erişim adresi: https://www.argentina.gob.ar/sites/default/files/compendio_estadistico_de_la_actividad_minera_1er_semestre_2025.pdf, Erişim tarihi: 01.12.2025.
  23. Dussel Peters, E. (2025a). Monitor of Chinese OFDI in Latin America and the Caribbean 2025. Red Académica de América Latina y el Caribe sobre China (Red ALC-China).
  24. Dussel Peters, E. (2025b). China’s Overseas Foreign Direct Investment in Latin America and the Caribbean: Debates and New Case Studies. Unión de Universidades de América Latina y el Caribe (UDUALC).
  25. EIU (2025). Bolivia: Country Report and Economic Forecast. EIU Country Analysis. Erişim adresi: https://country.eiu.com/Bolivia, Erişim tarihi: 30.11.2025.
  26. Evans, P. (1995). Embedded Autonomy: States and Industrial Transformation. Princeton University Press.
  27. Farrell, H. & Newman, A. L. (2019). Weaponized Interdependence: How Global Economic Networks Shape State Coercion. International Security, 44(1), 42-79. https://doi.org/10.1162/isec_a_00351
  28. Flaster Greenberg (2025). Bolivia’s Economic Upheaval Threatens Renewable Energy Development. Erişim adresi: https://www.flastergreenberg.com/energy-and-our-world/bolivias-economic-upheaval-threatens-renewable-energy-development, Erişim tarihi: 29.11.2025.
  29. Gaceta Oficial de Bolivia (2017). Ley N.° 928: Ley de la Empresa Pública Nacional Estratégica de Yacimientos de Litio Bolivianos - YLB (27 de abril de 2017). Estado Plurinacional de Bolivia. Erişim adresi: http://gacetaoficialdebolivia.gob.bo/normas/buscar/928, Erişim tarihi: 30.11.2025.
  30. Gantz, D. A. & Payan, T. (2025). Strategic Priorities for the 2026 USMCA Review. Baker Institute for Public Policy. Erişim adresi: https://www.bakerinstitute.org/research/strategic-priorities-2026-usmca-review, Erişim tarihi: 06.12.2025
  31. George, A. L. & Bennett, A. (2005). Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences. MIT Press. HAAL (2025). Conflictos por el Agua, Propiedad y minería en América Latina. Erişim adresi: https://www.haal.cl/index.php/haal/article/view/229/346, Erişim tarihi: 30.11.2025.
  32. Holzman, J. & Dlin, S. (2021). $22.6B Mexican Lithium Mine Bogs Down in Drug Cartel, Tech Risks. S&P Global. Erişim adresi: https://www.spglobal.com/marketintelligence/en/news-insights/latest-news-headlines/22-6b-mexican-lithium-mine-bogs-down-in-drug-cartel-tech-risks-66512627, Erişim tarihi: 04.12.2025.
  33. Hornborg, A. (1998). Towards an Ecological Theory of Unequal Exchange: Articulating World System Theory and Ecological Economics. Ecological Economics, 25(1), 127–136. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0921-8009(97)00100-6
  34. IEA (2025). Global Critical Minerals Outlook 2025. International Energy Agency. Erişim adresi: https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/ef5e9b70-3374-4caa-ba9d-19c72253bfc4/GlobalCriticalMineralsOutlook2025.pdf, Erişim tarihi: 05.12.2025.
  35. Infoterritorial (2025). A dos años del Tercer Malón de la Paz: Reivindicando la Resistencia Indígena. Erişim adresi: https://infoterritorial.com.ar/a-dos-anos-del-tercer-malon-de-la-paz-reivindicando-la-resistencia-indigena, Erişim tarihi: 02.12.2025.
  36. Jamasmie, C. (2024). Ganfeng sues Mexico over Lithium Permit Cancellation. Mining.com. Erişim adresi: https://www.mining.com/ganfeng-sues-mexico-over-lithium-permit-cancellation, Erişim tarihi: 30.11.2025.
  37. Lee, S. (2025). What Explains Variants in Resource Nationalism in Latin America’s Lithium Industry? The Extractive Industries and Society, 24, 101697. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exis.2025.101697
  38. Link, A., Marinova, S., Roche, L., Coroamă, V., Hinkers, L., Borchardt, D. & Finkbeiner, M. (2025). Lithium Mining in the Salar de Atacama: Accounting Practices for Water Footprinting. Water, 17(11), 1670. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17111670
  39. Marroquín Bitar, D., Hernandez-Roy, C. & Wayne, E. A. (2025). USMCA Review 2026: Pathways, Risks, and Strategic Considerations for North America’s Economic Future. Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS). Erişim adresi: https://www.csis.org/analysis/usmca-review-2026, Erişim tarihi: 04.12.2025.
  40. Mundo Minera (2025). Cochilco reportó un Fuerte Repunte en los Precios Globales del Litio. Erişim adresi: https://mundomineria.cl/2025/12/18/cochilco-reporto-un-fuerte-repunte-en-los-precios-globales-del-litio, Erişim tarihi: 19.12.2025.
  41. NRGI (2024). Ingresos fiscales por litio en Chile: Análisis del acuerdo Codelco-SQM. Natural Resource Governance Institute. Erişim adresi: https://resourcegovernance.org/sites/default/files/2024-05/NRGI_Ingresos%20fiscales%20por%20litio%20en%20Chile.pdf, Erişim tarihi: 01.12.2025.
  42. Obaya, M. (2021). The Evolution of Resource Nationalism: The case of Bolivian Lithium. The Extractive Industries and Society, 8(3), 100932. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.exis.2021.100932
  43. Ramos, D. (2023). Chinese Battery Giant CATL Seals $1.4 Billion Deal to Develop Bolivia Lithium. Reuters. Erişim adresi: https://www.reuters.com/markets/commodities/chinese-battery-giant-catl-seals-14-billion-deal-develop-bolivia-lithium-2023-06-19/, Erişim tarihi: 01.12.2025.
  44. Reuters (2025). Lithium Prices Plunge in China After Moves to Curb Speculative Trading. Erişim adresi: https://www.reuters.com/world/asia-pacific/lithium-prices-plunge-china-after-moves-curb-speculative-trading-2025-11-21, Erişim tarihi: 02.12.2025.
  45. Richardson, L. J. (2024). Statement of General Laura J. Richardson, Commander, United States Southern Command, before the 118th Congress House Armed Services Committee. U.S. Southern Command. Erişim adresi: https://www.congress.gov/118/meeting/house/116955/witnesses/HHRG-118-AS00-Wstate-RichardsonL-20240312.pdf, Erişim tarihi: 05.12.2025.
  46. Riofrancos, T. (2025). Extraction: The Frontiers of Green Capitalism. W. W. Norton & Company. SEMARNAT & INECC (2024). Plan Sonora de Energías Sostenibles: Estimación del Potencial de Mitigación de Gases y Compuestos de Efecto Invernadero (GyCEI). Gobierno de México; Gobierno del Estado de Sonora. Erişim adresi: https://www.gob.mx/cms/uploads/attachment/file/977416/Plan_Sonora_Dif_100225_Red_100225_compressed.pdf, Erişim tarihi: 02.12.2025.
  47. SMM (2025). Lithium Carbonate Prices Rise Sharply, Divergence Between Futures and Spot Markets Requires Attention. Shanghai Metals Market. Erişim adresi: https://www.metal.com/en/newscontent/103681372, Erişim tarihi: 01.12.2025.
  48. Sovacool, B. K., Hook, A., Martiskainen, M., Brock, A. & Turnheim, B. (2020). The Decarbonisation Divide: Contextualizing Landscapes of Low-Carbon Exploitation and Toxicity in Africa. Global Environmental Change, 60, 102028. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2019.102028
  49. Tooze, A. (2023). What is a Polycrisis and How Does the Historian Explain It? World Economic Forum. Erişim adresi: https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2023/03/what-is-a-polycrisis-and-how-does-the-historian-explain-it, Erişim tarihi: 29.11.2025.
  50. USGS (2025). Mineral Commodity Summaries 2025. U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey. Reston, Virginia. Erişim adresi: https://pubs.usgs.gov/publication/mcs2025, Erişim tarihi: 05.12.2025.
  51. Vera, M. L., Torres, W. R., Galli, C. I., Chagnes, A. & Flexer, V. (2023). Environmental Impact of Direct Lithium Extraction from Brines. Nature Reviews Earth & Environment, 4(3), 149–165. https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-022-00387-5
  52. Vivoda, V., Bazilian, M. D., Ralph, N., Khadim, A. & Wight, N. (2025). Chile’s Lithium Exceptionalism: Strategic Legacies and the Contested Future of the Salar de Maricunga. Energy Research & Social Science, 130, 104428. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.erss.2025.104428
  53. Yunis, J. & Aliakbari, E. (2025). Annual Survey of Mining Companies 2024. Fraser Institute.
  54. Zissis, C. (2025). Can Rodrigo Paz Unearth Bolivia’s Lithium Potential? Americas Society/Council of the Americas (AS/COA). Erişim adresi: https://www.as-coa.org/articles/latam-focus-can-rodrigo-paz-unearth-bolivias-lithium-potential, Erişim tarihi: 30.11.2025.