SavedAdd your journal

Journals / History Studies / 2026 / Sayı: 18(1)

The Stoic Animals of Anatolia: Working Donkeys in the 2nd Millennium BC and Earlier Through Archaeological, Philological and Ethnological Evidence

Anadolu'nun Stoik Hayvanları: Arkeolojik, Filolojik ve Etnografik Kanıtlara Göre MÖ 2. Binyıl ve Öncesinde İş Hayvanı Olarak Eşekler

Olcay Zengin Koşan(SİVAS CUMHURİYET ÜNİVERSİTESİ)0000-0003-0656-3093
Pages
—
Publication Date
2026-02-19
🏛️Bibliographic metadata and full text access for this article are provided via DergiPark.
DergiPark Record ↗
✨

AI Summary & Key Takeaways

AI Insight
⚡ TL;DR(Too Long; Didn't Read)

In addition, it highlights recent studies on the subject and emphasizes the importance of interdisciplinary research in identifying data on donkeys in Anatolian archaeology.

📌 3 Key Takeaways

🎯
Objective & Hypothesis:Domesticated donkeys, which have been a part of Near Eastern societies since 5000 BC, have been ideal work animals due to their patient and durable nature.
📊
Key Findings & Data:This study synthesizes archaeological, philological and ethnographic evidence to assess the contribution of domestic donkeys as draft and pack animals to agriculture, daily life and trade in Anatolia in the 2nd millennium BC and earlier.
💡
Conclusion & Impact:In addition, it highlights recent studies on the subject and emphasizes the importance of interdisciplinary research in identifying data on donkeys in Anatolian archaeology.
🔬Design:Araştırma Makalesi
📍Scope:Comprehensive Sample
⚙️Variables:Evcilleştirilmiş eşekler · koşum hayvanı · yük hayvanı

Abstract

Domesticated donkeys, which have been a part of Near Eastern societies since 5000 BC, have been ideal work animals due to their patient and durable nature. Arriving in Anatolia in the Late Chalcolithic Period through Mesopotamian trade networks, domesticated donkeys became an integral part of the economy, especially during the Early Bronze Age and Old Assyrian Period. Cuneiform texts of the Old Assyrian period provide detailed information on the use, care and economic value of these animals, emphasizing their indispensability in interregional trade and local economies. The scarcity of faunal remains of domesticated donkeys and the extremely detailed information provided in cuneiform tablets have led the archaeological literature on domesticated donkeys in Anatolia to focus mostly on these data. However, recent advances in zooarchaeological methods, DNA analysis, and interdisciplinary research offer new opportunities to uncover the cultural and economic role of donkeys in the ancient Near East. This study synthesizes archaeological, philological and ethnographic evidence to assess the contribution of domestic donkeys as draft and pack animals to agriculture, daily life and trade in Anatolia in the 2nd millennium BC and earlier. In addition, it highlights recent studies on the subject and emphasizes the importance of interdisciplinary research in identifying data on donkeys in Anatolian archaeology.

Özet

MÖ 5000’lerden itibaren Yakın Doğu toplumlarının bir parçası olan evcilleştirilmiş eşekler, sabırlı ve dayanıklı doğaları ile ideal bir iş hayvanı olmuştur. Anadolu'ya, Geç Kalkolitik Dönem'de Mezopotamya ticaret ağları aracılığıyla ulaşan evcilleştirilmiş eşekler, özellikle Erken Tunç Çağı ve Asur Ticaret Kolonileri Çağı’nda (MÖ 1975-1750) ekonominin ayrılmaz bir parçası haline gelmiştir. Asur Ticaret Kolonileri Çağı (ATKÇ) çivi yazılı metinleri bu hayvanların kullanımı, bakımı ve ekonomik değeri hakkında ayrıntılı bilgiler sunmakta, bölgeler arası ticaret ve yerel ekonomilerdeki vazgeçilmezliklerini vurgulamaktadır. Ancak, evcilleştirilmiş eşeklere ilişkin faunal kalıntıların azlığı ve çivi yazılı tabletlerdeki bilgilerin son derece ayrıntılı olması, Anadolu'daki evcilleştirilmiş eşeklere ilişkin arkeolojik literatürün çoğunlukla bu verilere odaklanmasına yol açmıştır. Buna karşılık son yıllarda zooarkeolojik yöntemler, DNA analizi ve disiplinler arası araştırmalarda yaşanan gelişmeler, eşeklerin antik Yakın Doğu'daki kültürel ve ekonomik rollerini ortaya çıkarmak için yeni fırsatlar sunmaktadır. Bu çalışma, arkeolojik, filolojik ve etnografik kanıtları sentezleyerek evcil eşeklerin MÖ 2. binyıl ve öncesinde Anadolu'da koşum ve yük hayvanı olarak tarıma, günlük yaşama ve ticarete katkılarını değerlendirmektedir. Bunun yanı sıra, konu ile ilgili son çalışmalara değinerek, Anadolu arkeolojisinde eşeklere ilişkin verilerin saptanmasında disiplinler arası araştırmaların önemine dikkat çekilmeye çalışılmıştır.

🔖

Cite This Article

Koşan, O. Z. (2026). The Stoic Animals of Anatolia: Working Donkeys in the 2nd Millennium BC and Earlier Through Archaeological, Philological and Ethnological Evidence. History Studies, Sayı: 18(1). https://doi.org/10.9737/historystudies.1700520

📄 Full Text PDF Viewer

📄

PDF görüntüleyici hazırlanıyor...

References (110)

  1. A Handbook of Mesopotamia. Volume 1, No. 1118. Great Britain: Admiralty and the War Office, 1916.
  2. Abdülcabbar, Abdullah. “The Nature of Trade between Ugarit and the Hittite Empire.” Fırat Üniversitesi Orta Doğu Araştırmaları Merkezi Uluslararası Dördüncü Orta Doğu Semineri (İlkçağlardan İslamiyetin Doğuşuna Kadar Orta Doğu), Elazığ, 29–31 Mayıs, Editörler Mustafa Öztürk ve Enver Çakar, 15–28. Elazığ: Fırat Üniversitesi Orta Doğu Araştırmaları Merkezi, 2011.
  3. Adcock, Sarah, E. “After the end: Animal economies, collapse, and continuity in Hittite and post-Hittite world Anatolia.” Doktora tezi, University of Chicago, 2020. https://doi.org/10.6082/uchicago.2653
  4. Akalan, İlhan. “Türkiye’nin Toprak Kaynakları, Bunların Sorunları ve Çözüm Yolları.” Türkiye Coğrafyası Uygulama Merkezi Dergisi 1 (1992): 1–14. https://tucaum.ankara.edu.tr/wp-content/uploads/sites/280/2015/08/tucaum1_2.pdf.
  5. Akçiçek, Eren, ve Hüseyin Arıkan. Can Dostum Arkadaşım Eşek. Ankara: Gece Kitaplığı, 2017.
  6. Albayrak, İrfan, ve Melike Zoroğlu. “Eski Asurca Belgeler Işığında Eski Anadolu’da Yol ve Ticaret Güvenliği.” Ankara Üniversitesi Dil ve Tarih-Coğrafya Fakültesi Dergisi 63, no. 2 (2023): 1358–1383. https://doi.org/10.33171/dtcfjournal.2023.63.2.19.
  7. Algaze, Guillermo. Ancient Mesopotamia at the Dawn of Civilization: The Evolution of an Urban Landscape. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2008.
  8. Arbuckle, Benjamin S. “Zooarchaeology at Acemhöyük 2013.” Anatolia / Anadolu 39 (2013): 55–68. https://doi.org/10.1501/andl_0000000403.
  9. Arbuckle, Benjamin S., ve Emily L. Hammer. “The Rise of Pastoralism in the Ancient Near East.” Journal of Archaeological Research 27 (2019): 391–449. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10814-018-9124-8.
  10. Arbuckle, Benjamin S., ve Aliye Öztan. “Horse and Hemione Hunting at Late Neolithic / Chalcolithic Köşk Höyük, Central Turkey.” Archaeozoology of the Near East XII, Editörler Canan Çakırlar, Jwana Chahoud, Rémi Berthon, vd. 41–58. Groningen: Barkhuis Publishing, 2018.
  11. Aslan, Ensar. “Kars Yöresinde Malakanlar’dan Kalan ve Kaybolmak Üzere Olan Rençberlik Geleneği.” Millî Folklor 93 (2012): 252–263.
  12. Atalay, İbrahim. “A New Approach to the Land Capability Classification: Case Study of Turkey.” Procedia Environmental Sciences 32 (2016): 264–274. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proenv.2016.03.031.
  13. Atıcı, Levent. “The Secondary Products Revolution in Light of Textual Evidence from Kultepe-Kanesh, Central Turkey.” Animal Secondary Products: Domestic Animal Exploitation in Prehistoric Europe, the Near East and the Far East, Editör Haskel J. Greenfield, 233–252. Oxford: Oxbow Books, 2014.
  14. Atlı, Buket, Evren Yıldırım, ve Iraz Candaş. Türkiye'de Tarım Topraklarının Dünü, Bugünü ve Geleceği. İstanbul: Doğal Hayatı Koruma Vakfı Yayınları, 2021.
  15. Aydıngün, Haldun R. “Kara Taşımacılığında Hayvan Kullanımıyla İlgili Çok Erken Bir Örnek: Canhasan Eşeği.” Arkeoloji ve Sanat Dergisi 156 (2017): 27–34.
  16. Barjamovic, Gojko. A Historical Geography of Anatolia in the Old Assyrian Colony Period. Copenhagen: Museum Tusculanum Press, 2011.
  17. Barjamovic, Gojko. “Tüccarlar ve Seyyahlar: Anadolu’da Assurlular (MÖ 2000–1600).” Assurlular: Dicle’den Toroslar’a Tanrı Assur’un Krallığı, Editörler Kemalettin Köroğlu ve Selim Ferruh Adalı, 26–53. İstanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları, 2018.
  18. Beckman, Gary M. “Hittite Administration in Syria in the Light of the Texts from Ḫattuša, Ugarit and Emar.” New Horizons in the Study of Ancient Syria, Editörler Mark W. Chavalas ve John L. Hayes, 41–49. Bibliotheca Mesopotamica 25. Malibu: Undena, 1992.
  19. Beja-Pereira, Albano, Phillip R. Englund, Nuno Ferrand, vd. “African Origins of the Domestic Donkey.” Science 304, no. 5678 (2004): 1781. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1096008.
  20. Bell, Carol. “The Merchants of Ugarit: Oligarchs of the LBA Trade in Metals?” Eastern Mediterranean Metallurgy and Metalwork in the Second Millennium BC: Proceedings of a Conference in Honour of James D. Muhly, Editörler Vasiliki Kassianidou ve George Papasavvas, 180–187. Oxford: Oxbow Books, 2012.
  21. Bennett, Andrew E., Sophie Champlot, Joris Peters, vd. “Taming the Late Quaternary Phylogeography of the Eurasiatic Wild Ass through Ancient and Modern DNA.” PLoS ONE 12 (2017): e0174216. https://doi.org/10.371/journal.pone.0174216.
  22. Blench, Roger, Aurélien de Jode, ve Enrico Gherzi. “Donkeys in Nigeria: History, Distribution and Productivity.” Donkeys, People and Development: A Resource Book of the Animal Traction Network for Eastern and Southern Africa (ATNESA), Editörler Denis Fielding ve Paul Starkey, 210–219. Wageningen: ACP-EU Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA), 2004.
  23. Bough, Jill. “The Mirror Has Two Faces: Contradictory Reflections of Donkeys in Western Literature from Lucius to Balthazar.” Animals 1 (2011): 56–68. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani1010056.
  24. Brodie, Neil. “The Donkey: An Appropriate Technology for Early Bronze Age Land Transport and Traction.” Horizon: A Colloquium on the Prehistory of the Cyclades, Editörler Neil Brodie, Jenny Doole, Giorgos Gavalas, ve Colin Renfrew, 299–304. Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, 2008.
  25. Bryce, Trevor. Life and Society in the Hittite World. New York: Oxford University Press, 2002.
  26. Burden, Faith, ve Alex Thiemann. “Donkeys Are Different.” Journal of Equine Veterinary Science 35 (2015): 376–382. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jevs.2015.03.005.
  27. Castellano, Lorenzo. “Farming the Land of Hatti: A Socio-Economic History of Agriculture in Central Anatolia from the Bronze Age to the Hellenistic Period.” Doktora tezi, New York University, 2022. ProQuest (29062121).
  28. Dercksen, Jan G. Old Assyrian Institutions. Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 2004.
  29. Dercksen, Jan G. “Subsistence, Surplus and the Market for Grain and Meat at Ancient Kanesh.” Altorientalische Forschungen 35, no. 1 (2008): 86–102.
  30. Dercksen, Jan G. “Observations on Land Use and Agriculture in Kaneš.” Old Assyrian Studies in Memory of Paul Garelli, Editör Cécile Michel, 139–158. Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten, 2008.
  31. Devecchi, Elena. “The International Relations of Ḫatti’s Syrian Vassals, or How to Make the Best of Things.” Policies of Exchange: Political Systems and Modes of Interaction in the Aegean and the Near East in the 2nd Millennium B.C.E., Editörler Birgitta Eder ve Regine Pruzsinszky, 117–126. Wien: Austrian Academy of Sciences Press, 2015.
  32. Diffey, Charlotte, Reinder Neef, ve Amy Bogaard. “The Archaeobotany of Large-Scale Hermetic Cereal Storage at the Hittite Capital of Hattusha.” Innovation versus Beharrung: Was Macht den Unterschied des Hethitischen Reichs im Anatolien des 2. Jahrtausends v. Chr.?, Editör Andreas Schachner, 185–201. İstanbul: Ege Yayınları, 2017.
  33. Dörfler, Walter, Christa Herking, Reinder Neef, vd. “Environment and Economy in Hittite Anatolia.” Insights into Hittite History and Archaeology, Editörler Herman Genz ve Dirk P. Mielke, 99–124. Leuven: Peeters Press, 2011.
  34. El-Menshawy, Sherine. “Uses of Domesticated Donkeys: Evidence from Old Kingdom Tomb Scenes.” Abgadiyat 4 (2009): 51–62. https://doi.org/10.21608/ABGAD.2009.61080.
  35. Epstein, Claire. “Laden Animal Figurines from the Chalcolithic Period in Palestine.” Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research 258 (1985): 53–62. https://doi.org/10.2307/1356898.
  36. Erinç, Sırrı, ve Necdet Tunçdilek. “The Agricultural Regions of Turkey.” Geographical Review 42, no. 2 (1952): 179–203. https://doi.org/10.2307/211384.
  37. Faist, Betina. “Itineraries and Travellers in the Middle Assyrian Period.” State Archives of Assyria Bulletin 25 (2006): 147–160.
  38. Fidan, Süleyman. “Gaziantep’te Zanaatler: Semercilik, Çulculuk ve Palancılık.” Gaziantep Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi 16, no. 2 (2017): 580–593. https://doi.org/10.21547/jss.299201.
  39. Fielding, Denis. “Pack Transport with Donkeys.” Appropriate Technology Journal 15, no. 3 (1988): 11–13. https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/48027737.pdf.
  40. Gilibert, Alessandra. “Urban Squares in Late Bronze Age Ugarit: A Street View on Ancient Near Eastern Governance.” Journal of Near Eastern Studies 80, no. 2 (2021): 377–414. https://doi.org/10.1086/716076.
  41. Goulder, Jill. “Modern Development Studies as a Resource for Understanding Working Animal Use in Later Human Prehistory: The Example of 4th–3rd Millennium BC Mesopotamia.” Doktora tezi, University College London, 2018. ProQuest (13831592).
  42. Goulder, Jill. “Invisible Donkeys in Ancient Mesopotamia: New Insights from Modern Studies in Sub-Saharan Africa.” Archaeozoology of the Near East XII: Proceedings of the 12th International Symposium of the ICAZ Archaeozoology of Southwest Asia and Adjacent Areas Working Group, Editörler Canan Çakırlar, Jwana Chahoud, Rémi Berthon, ve Suzanne Pilaar Birch, 79–90. Groningen: Barkhuis Publishing and University of Groningen, 2018.
  43. Goulder, Jill. “Face to Face with Working Donkeys in Mesopotamia: Insights from Modern Development Studies.” Fierce Lions, Angry Mice and Fat-Tailed Sheep: Animal Encounters in the Ancient Near East, Editörler Laerke Recht ve Christina Tsouparopoulou, 249–261. Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, 2021
  44. Goulder, Jill. “Draught Animals in Ancient Mesopotamia and Today: The Invaluable Donkey.” Draft Animals in the Past, Present and Future, Editörler Claus Kropp ve Lena Zoll, 95–106. Heidelberg: Propylaeum, 2022.
  45. Gökçek, Gürkan L. “Asur Ticaret Kolonileri Çağında Anadolu’da Kervan Güzergâhları ve Taşımacılık.” Türkiye Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi 8, no. 1 (2004): 151–164.
  46. Gökçek, Gürkan L. “Asur Ticaret Kolonileri Çağı’nda (M.Ö. 1975–1723) Anadolu’da Hayvancılık ve Hayvan Ticareti.” Archivum Anatolicum 7, no. 1 (2004): 59–78. https://doi.org/10.1501/Archv_0000000112.
  47. Gökçek, Gürkan L. “Kültepe Metinlerine Göre Ticari Malların Paketlenmesi ve Taşınması ile İlgili Bazı Kelimeler.” Archivum Anatolicum 8, no. 1 (2005): 59–75. https://doi.org/10.1501/Archv_0000000120.
  48. Greenfield, Haskel J. “The Secondary Products Revolution: The Past, the Present and the Future.” World Archaeology 42 (2010): 29–54. https://doi.org/10.1080/00438240903429722.
  49. Greenfield, Haskel J., Tina L. Greenfield, Elizabeth Arnold, vd “Evidence for Movement of Goods and Animals from Egypt to Canaan during the Early Bronze of the Southern Levant: A View from Tell Eṣ-Sâfi/Gath.” Ägypten und Levante 30 (2020): 377–397. https://doi.org/10.1553/AEundL30s377.
  50. Groves, Colin P. “The Taxonomy, Distribution and Adaptations of Recent Equids.” Equids in the Ancient World, Vol. I, Editörler Richard H. Meadow ve Hans-Peter Uerpmann, 11–66. Wiesbaden: Reichert, 1986.
  51. Gündem, Can Y. “Earliest Mule Remains from Early Bronze Age Central Anatolia.” Animals 14, no. 10 (2024): 1397. https://doi.org/10.3390/ani14101397.
  52. Hagmann, Jürgen, ve Leela, V. Prasad. “Use of Donkeys and Their Draught Performance in Smallholder Farming in Zimbabwe.” Tropical Animal Health and Production 27, no. 4 (1995): 231–239. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02250700.
  53. Halstead, Paul, ve Glynis Jones. “Agrarian Ecology in the Greek Islands: Time, Stress, Scale and Risk.” Journal of Hellenic Studies 109 (1989): 41–55. https://doi.org/10.2307/632031.
  54. Hanot, Pauline, ve Corentin Bochaton. “New Osteological Criteria for the Identification of Domestic Horses, Donkeys and Their Hybrids in Archaeological Contexts.” Journal of Archaeological Science 94 (2018): 12–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2018.03.012.
  55. Hart, Ben. “Behaviour.” The Clinical Companion of Donkey Dentistry, Editörler Gemma Lilly ve Linda Evans, 196–204. The Donkey Sanctuary, 2019.
  56. Heimpel, Wolfgang. “Towards an Understanding of the Term Sikkum.” Revue d’Assyriologie 88 (1994): 5–31. https://cdli.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/publications/1660014.
  57. Heltzer, Michael. “The Metal Trade of Ugarit and the Problem of Transportation of Commercial Goods.” Iraq 39, no. 2 (1977): 203–211. https://doi.org/10.2307/4200067.
  58. Hoffner, Harry A. The Laws of the Hittites: A Critical Edition. New York: Brill, 1997.
  59. Hollenstein, Daria, ve Geraldine Middea. “The Faunal Remains from the Square Building Horizon in the Valley West of Sarıkale, Boğazköy-Ḫattuša.” Ausgrabungen ve Forschungen in der Westlichen Oberstadt von Ḫattuša I, Editörler Andreas Schachner ve Jürgen Seeher, 147–215. Berlin: Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts, 2016.
  60. Hruška, Blahoslav. “Agricultural Techniques.” The Babylonian World, Editör Gwendolyn Leick, 54–65. New York and London: Routledge, 2007.
  61. Kamış, Yalçın. “Acemhöyük ve Erken Tunç Çağı Anadolu Ticaret Ağları.” Belleten 86, no. 307 (2022): 779–805. https://doi.org/10.37879/belleten.2022.779.
  62. Kimura, Birgitta, Fiona Marshall, Albano Beja-Pereira, ve Connie Mulligan. “Donkey Domestication.” African Archaeological Review 30, no. 1 (2013): 83–95. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10437-012-9126-8.
  63. Klein, Jacob “Six New Archaic Tablets from Uruk.” Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und Vorderasiatische Archäologie 94, no. 2 (2004): 161–174. https://doi.org/10.1515/zava.2004.94.2.161.
  64. Kugler, Waltraud, Hans-Peter Grunenfelder, ve Elli Broxham. Donkey Breeds in Europe: Inventory, Description, Need for Action, Conservation. Report 2007/2008. Switzerland: Monitoring Institute for Rare Breeds and Seeds in Europe, 2008. https://www.doc-developpement-durable.org/file/Elevages/Anes/donkey%20(1).pdf
  65. Larsen, Mogens T. Old Assyrian Caravan Procedures. İstanbul: Nederlands Historisch-Archaeologisch Instituut in het Nabije Oosten, 1967.
  66. Malbran-Labat, Florence, ve Carole Roche. “Bordereaux de la ‘Maison d’Ourtenou (Urtēnu)’: À Propos de la Gestion des Équidés et de la Place de Cette Maison dans l’Économie Palatiale.” Ougarit au Bronze Moyen et au Bronze Récent: Actes du Colloque International Tenu à Lyon en Novembre 2001 «Ougarit au IIe Millénaire av. J.-C.» État des Recherches, Editörler Yves Calvet ve Marguerite Yon, 243–275. Lyon: Maison de l'Orient et de la Méditerranée Jean Pouilloux, 2008.
  67. Michel, Cécile. “The Perdum-Mule: A Mount for Distinguished Persons in Mesopotamia during the First Half of the Second Millennium BC.” Man and Animal in Antiquity: Proceedings of the Conference at the Swedish Institute in Rome, September 9–12, 2002, Editör Barbro Santillo Frizell, 190–200. Rome: Swedish Institute in Rome, 2004.
  68. Michel, Cécile. “Production and Trade in the Old Assyrian Period.” Rivista di Storia Economica 31, no. 1 (2015): 57–78. https://doi.org/10.1410/79857.
  69. Michel, Cécile. “Economy, Society, and Daily Life in the Old Assyrian Period.” A Companion to Assyria, Editör Eckart Frahm, 80–107. New Jersey: Wiley, 2017.
  70. Milevski, Ianir. “The Transition from the Chalcolithic to the Early Bronze Age in the Southern Levant in Socio-Economic Context.” Paléorient 39 (2013): 193–208. https://doi.org/10.3406/paleo.2013.5495.
  71. Mitchell, Peter. The Donkey in Human History: An Archaeological Perspective. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2018.
  72. Nengomasha, Edward. M., Anne R. Pearson, ve T Smith. “The Donkey as a Draught Power Resource in Smallholder Farming in Semi-Arid Western Zimbabwe: Performance Compared with That of Cattle When Ploughing on Different Soil Types Using Two Plough Types.” Animal Science 68 (1999): 305–312. https://doi.org/10.1017/S1357729800050876.
  73. Nengomasha, Edward. M., Anne R. Pearson, ve Gebre A. Wold. “Empowering People through Donkey Power into the Next Millennium.” Empowering Farmers with Animal Traction: Proceedings of the Workshop of the Animal Traction Network for Eastern and Southern Africa (ATNESA) Held 20–24 September 1999, Mpumalanga, South Africa, Editörler Pascal. G. Kaumbutho, Anne R. Pearson, ve Timothy Simalenga, 22–31. Zimbabwe: Animal Traction Network for Eastern and Southern Africa, 2000.
  74. Nigro, Lorenzo. “The Copper Route and the Egyptian Connection in 3rd Millennium BC Jordan Seen from the Caravan City of Khirbet al-Batrawy.” Vicino Oriente 18 (2014): 39–64.
  75. Norris, Stuart L., Holly A. Little, Joseph Ryding, ve Zoe Raw. “Global Donkey and Mule Populations: Figures and Trends.” PLoS ONE 16, no. 2 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0247830.
  76. Oğuz, Burhan. Türkiye Halkının Kültür Kökenleri 2/C: Tarım, Hayvancılık, Meteoroloji. İstanbul: Anadolu Aydınlanma Vakfı Yayınları, 2003.
  77. Oudman, Luurt. Donkeys for Traction and Tillage. Netherlands: De Goede Press, 2004.
  78. Oyediran, Kayode K., ve Abdulkarim. A. Manga. “Animal Mode of Transport as a Sustainable Supplement to Rural Road Transportation in Birnin Kebbi Region of Kebbi State.” Research Journal of Agriculture and Environmental Management 6, no. 5 (2017): 80–88. https://apexjournal.org/rjaem/archive/2017/July/July_toc.htm.
  79. Öz, Esma. “Kültepe Metinleri Işığında Eski Anadolu'da Tarım ve Hayvancılık.” Doktora tezi, Ankara Üniversitesi, 2011.
  80. Özgüç, Nimet. Kültepe Mühür Baskılarında Anadolu Grubu. 2nd ed. Ankara: Türk Tarih Kurumu Yayınları, 2020.
  81. Özgüç, Tahsin. Kültepe: Kaniš/Neša. İstanbul: Yapı Kredi Yayınları, 2005.
  82. Özkan, Mustafa, Kanat Gürün, Eren Yüncü, vd. “The First Complete Genome of the Extinct European Wild Ass (Equus hemionus hydruntinus).” Molecular Ecology 33 (2024): e17440. https://doi.org/10.1111/mec.17440.
  83. Payne, Sebastian. “Animal Bones from Tell Rubeidheh.” Tell Rubeidheh: An Uruk Village in the Jebel Hamrin, Editör Robert G. Killick, 98–135. Warminster: Aris & Phillips, 1988.
  84. Pearson, Anne R., Jeroen T. Dijkman, Rosina C. Krecek vd. “Effect of Density and Weight of Load on the Energy Cost of Carrying Loads by Donkeys and Ponies.” Tropical Animal Health and Production 30 (1998): 67–78. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005021729061
  85. Peters, Joris, Angela von den Driesch, ve Dominique Helmer. “The Upper Euphrates-Tigris Basin: Cradle of Agro-Pastoralism?” The First Steps of Animal Domestication: New Archaeological Approaches, Editörler Jean-Denis Vigne, Joris Peters, ve Daniel Helmer, 96–124. Oxford: Oxbow, 2005.
  86. Potts, Daniel T. Mesopotamian Civilization: The Material Foundations. London: Athlone Press, 1997.
  87. Potts, Daniel T. “Equus asinus in Highland Iran: Evidence Old and New.” Between Sand and Sea: The Archaeology and Human Ecology of Southwestern Asia. Festschrift in Honor of Hans-Peter Uerpmann, Editörler Nicholas J. Conard, Philipp Drechsler, ve Arturo Morales, 167–175. Tübingen: Kerns Verlag, 2011.
  88. Prasad, Leela, V., Kudzai Marovanidze, ve Pathisa Nyathi. “The Use of Donkeys as Draught Animals Relative to Bovines in the Communal Farming Sector of Zimbabwe.” Donkeys, Mules and Horses in Tropical Agricultural Development, Editörler Denis Fielding ve Anne R. Pearson, 231–239. Edinburgh: University of Edinburgh, 1991.
  89. Pruzsinszky, Regine, ve Barbara E. Solans. “Emar’s Role in Transregional Trade at the Crossroads along the Middle Euphrates.” Policies of Exchange: Political Systems and Modes of Interaction in the Aegean and the Near East in the 2nd Millennium B.C.E., Editörler Birgitta Eder ve Regine Pruzsinszky, 315–337. Vienna: Oriental and European Archaeology, 2015.
  90. Recht, Laerke. The Spirited Horse: Equid-Human Relations in the Bronze Age Near East. London: Bloomsbury, 2022.
  91. Rosenbom, Sónia, Vânia Costa, Nasser Al-Araimi, vd. “Genetic Diversity of Donkey Populations from the Putative Centers of Domestication.” Animal Genetics 46 (2014): 30–36. https://doi.org/10.1111/age.12256.
  92. Rossel, Stine, Fiona Marshall, Joris Peters, vd. “Domestication of the Donkey: Timing, Processes, and Indicators.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 105, no. 10 (2008): 3715–3720. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0709692105.
  93. Saadé, Gabriel. Ougarit et son Royaume, des Origines à sa Destruction. Beyrouth: Institut Français du Proche-Orient, 2011.
  94. Sallaberger, Walther. “Urban Organizations for Offerings, Overland Traffic and the Euphrates Trade at Pre-Sargonic Mari.” Mari, ni Est, ni Ouest? 75 ans de Découvertes Archéologiques à Tell Hariri, Vol. I, Editörler Pascal Butterlin, Jean-Claude Margueron, Béatrice Muller, vd., 341–354. Beyrouth: Institut Français du Proche-Orient, 2014.
  95. Shackelford, Laura, Fiona Marshall, ve Joris Peters. “Identifying Donkey Domestication through Changes in Cross-Sectional Geometry of Long Bones.” Journal of Archaeological Science 40, no. 12 (2013): 4170–4179. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2013.06.006.
  96. Sherratt, Andrew. “Plough and Pastoralism: Aspects of the Secondary Products Revolution.” Pattern of the Past: Studies in Honour of David Clarke, Editörler Ian Hodder, Glynn Isaac, ve Normen Hammond, 261–305. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981.
  97. Singer, Itamar. “The Great Scribe Taki-Šarruma.” Hittite Studies in Honor of Harry A. Hoffner, Jr. on the Occasion of His 65th Birthday, Editörler Gary Beckman, Richard Beal, ve Gregory McMahon, 341–348. Winona Lake: Eisenbrauns, 2003.
  98. Sümer, Faruk. Türklerde atçılık ve binicilik. İstanbul: Türk Dünyası Araştırmaları Vakfı, 1983.
  99. Taş, İlknur. “M.Ö. 13. Yüzyılda Kargamıš Krallığında Görevli İki Hitit Memuru: mâr šarri (DUMU.LUGAL) ve Lukartappu.” Tarih Araştırmaları Dergisi 27, no. 43 (2008): 95–117.
  100. Todd, Evelyn T., Laure Tonasso-Calvière, Loreleï Chauvey, vd. “The Genomic History and Global Expansion of Domestic Donkeys.” Science 377 (2022): 1172–1180. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.abo3503.
  101. van Dijk, Lisa, Bojia E. Duguma, Mariano Hernández Gil, vd. The Role, Impact and Welfare of Working (Traction and Transport) Animals. Rome: FAO Animal Production and Health Report, 2014. https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/0cd63cd8-d185-4d0c-bc6e-00d7eb65360c/content.
  102. Veenhof, Klaas R. Aspects of Old Assyrian Trade and Its Terminology. Leiden: Brill, 1972.
  103. von den Driesch, Angela, ve Joachim Boessneck. Reste von Haus- und Jagdtieren aus der Unterstadt von Boğazköy-Hattusa: Grabungen 1958-1977. Berlin: Gebr. Mann Verlag, 1981.
  104. von Soden, Wolfram. Akkadisches Handwörterbuch. Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz, 1966.
  105. Watson, Wilfred G. E. “Semitic and Non-Semitic Terms for Horse Trappings in Ugaritic.” Aula Orientalis 29, no. 1 (2011): 155–176. https://www.ub.edu/ipoa/aula-orientalis/au-or-2011-291/.
  106. Yılmaz, Orhan. “Türkiye’de Nesli Tükenen veya Tükenme Tehlikesi Altındaki Evcil Hayvanlar.” Sunum, Uluslararası Organik Tarım ve Biyoçeşitlilik Sempozyumu, Bayburt, 2017.
  107. Yılmaz, Orhan, ve Mehmet Ertuğrul. “The Morphologic Traits of Donkeys Raised in East and Southeast of Turkey.” Hayvansal Üretim 53 (2012): 10–13.
  108. Yılmaz, Orhan, Saim Boztepe, ve Mehmet Ertuğrul. “The Domesticated Donkey: I – Species Characteristics.” Canadian Journal of Applied Sciences 4, no. 2 (2012): 339–353. https://consortiumpublisher.net/index.php/archives-cjas.
  109. Yılmaz, Orhan, ve Mehmet Ertuğrul. “Türkiye’de Yetiştirilen Kimi Tek Tırnaklılara Ait Bazı Morfolojik Özellikler.” ÇOMÜ Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi 2, no. 2 (2014): 9–16.
  110. Zarins, Juris. “The Domestication of Equidae in Third Millennium B.C. Mesopotamia.” Doktora tezi, University of Chicago, 1976. ProQuest (T-26263).