SavedAdd your journal

Journals / Communicata / 2026 / Sayı: 32

Synthetic Politics and Counter-Framing: AI-Generated Misinformation and Fact-Checking in Bangladesh's 2025-2026 Election Cycle

Sentetik Siyaset ve Karşı-Çerçeveleme: Bangladeş'in 2025-2026 Seçim Sürecinde Yapay Zekâ Üretimi Yanlış Bilgi ve Doğruluk Kontrolü

Moshiur Rahman(Comilla University)0000-0002-4923-6036
Pages
43–63
Publication Date
2026-09-04
🏛️Bibliographic metadata and full text access for this article are provided via DergiPark.
DergiPark Record ↗
✨

AI Summary & Key Takeaways

AI Insight
⚡ TL;DR(Too Long; Didn't Read)

The paper argues that AI shifted misinformation from evidential falsification toward synthetic plausibility, making counter-framing dependent on forensic verification and rapid public explanation.

📌 3 Key Takeaways

🎯
Objective & Hypothesis:This study examines how artificial intelligence (AI)-generated and digitally manipulated political misinformation circulated in Bangladesh’s pre-election information environment between August 2024 and February 2026, and how fact-checking organisations responded through counter-framing.
📊
Key Findings & Data:Combining qualitative framing analysis with descriptive content coding, it draws on the published aggregate datasets of nine Bangladesh-focused verification organisations, covering 4,131 unique misinformation items in 2025 and 1,185 political cases during the 2026 election cycle, alongside a register of verified open fact-checks.
💡
Conclusion & Impact:The paper argues that AI shifted misinformation from evidential falsification toward synthetic plausibility, making counter-framing dependent on forensic verification and rapid public explanation.
🔬Design:Araştırma Makalesi
📍Scope:2024 Verileri
⚙️Variables:Yapay zekâ kaynaklı yanlış bilgi · Deepfake · Bangladeş

Abstract

This study examines how artificial intelligence (AI)-generated and digitally manipulated political misinformation circulated in Bangladesh’s pre-election information environment between August 2024 and February 2026, and how fact-checking organisations responded through counter-framing. Combining qualitative framing analysis with descriptive content coding, it draws on the published aggregate datasets of nine Bangladesh-focused verification organisations, covering 4,131 unique misinformation items in 2025 and 1,185 political cases during the 2026 election cycle, alongside a register of verified open fact-checks. The findings show that synthetic media did not replace older manipulation techniques. Instead, it combined with recycled footage, fabricated photocards, fake quotations and partisan amplification to form a hybrid misinformation system. Around 10% of unique items in 2025 involved AI, and roughly 12% of election-related cases were AI-generated, most of them video. The individuals most frequently named included Sheikh Hasina, Muhammad Yunus, Sharif Osman Bin Hadi, Tarique Rahman and Hasnat Abdullah, while the Bangladesh Nationalist Party (BNP) and the interim government carried the heaviest party-level burden. A directional reading shows that content around Sheikh Hasina was mostly favourable, whereas content around the interim government was mostly hostile. The paper argues that AI shifted misinformation from evidential falsification toward synthetic plausibility, making counter-framing dependent on forensic verification and rapid public explanation.

Özet

Bu çalışma, Ağustos 2024 ile Şubat 2026 arasında Bangladeş’in seçim öncesi enformasyon ortamında yapay zekâ (AI) ile üretilen ve dijital olarak manipüle edilen siyasal yanlış bilgilerin nasıl dolaşıma girdiğini ve doğrulama kuruluşlarının buna karşı-çerçeveleme yoluyla nasıl yanıt verdiğini incelemektedir. Nitel çerçeveleme analizi ile betimsel içerik kodlamasını birleştiren araştırma, Bangladeş odaklı dokuz doğrulama kuruluşunun yayımlanmış toplu verilerine, 2025’te 4.131 benzersiz yanlış bilgi ve 2026 seçim döngüsündeki 1.185 siyasal vakaya dayanmaktadır. Bulgular, sentetik medyanın eski manipülasyon biçimlerinin yerini almadığını, eski görüntüler, sahte medya kartları ve partizan ağlarla birleşerek melez bir yanlış bilgi sistemi oluşturduğunu göstermektedir. 2025’te benzersiz vakaların yaklaşık %10’u, seçim vakalarının ise yaklaşık %12’si yapay zekâ tarafından üretilmişti. En sık adı geçen kişiler Şeyh Hasina, Muhammed Yunus, Şerif Osman Bin Hadi, Tarique Rahman ve Hasnat Abdullah olurken, BNP ve geçiş hükümeti en ağır yükü taşıdı. Yönsel okuma, Hasina ile ilgili içeriğin çoğunlukla olumlu, geçiş hükümeti ile ilgili içeriğin ise çoğunlukla düşmanca olduğunu göstermektedir. Çalışma, yapay zekânın yanlış bilgiyi kanıt tahrifinden sentetik inandırıcılığa taşıdığını ileri sürmektedir.

🔖

Cite This Article

Rahman, M. (2026). Synthetic Politics and Counter-Framing: AI-Generated Misinformation and Fact-Checking in Bangladesh's 2025-2026 Election Cycle. Communicata, Sayı: 32, 43–63. https://doi.org/10.32952/communicata.1965352

📄 Full Text PDF Viewer

📄

PDF görüntüleyici hazırlanıyor...

References (172)

  1. Ajker Patrika. (2026, February 10). Shakib Khan is shown in an AI-generated video from a Jamaat election campaign. https://www.ajkerpatrika.com/fact-check/fact-check-national/ajpggc03gc6e7
  2. Al-Zaman, M. S. (2019). Digital disinformation and communalism in Bangladesh. China Media Research, 15(2), 68–76.
  3. Al-Zaman, M. S., Sife, S. A., Sultana, M., Akbar, M., Ahona, K. T. S., & Sarkar, N. (2020). Social media rumors in Bangladesh. Journal of Information Science Theory and Practice, 8(3), 77–90. https://doi.org/10.1633/JISTaP.2020.8.3.6
  4. Amazeen, M. A. (2020). Journalistic interventions: The structural factors affecting the global emergence of fact-checking. Journalism, 21(1), 95–111. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464884917730217
  5. Bangladesh Sangbad Sangstha. (2025, May 1). Rumor Scanner detects 296 misinformation cases in April. https://www.bssnews.net/news/top-news/268846
  6. BOOM. (2025, February 18). Sheikh Hasina's 'Aynaghor confession' was fabricated using a cloned-voice deepfake. https://www.boomlive.in/fact-check/sheikh-hasina-false-bangladesh-aynaghor-confession-deepfake-analysis-27795
  7. Chadwick, A. (2017). The hybrid media system: Politics and power (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190696726.001.0001
  8. Chesney, R., & Citron, D. K. (2019). Deep fakes: A looming challenge for privacy, democracy, and national security. California Law Review, 107(6), 1753–1819. https://doi.org/10.15779/Z38RV0D15J
  9. Dismislab. (2024, February 11). How disinformation played during the Bangladesh national election. https://en.dismislab.com/how-disinformation-played-during-the-bangladesh-national-election/
  10. Dismislab. (2025a, November 20). DMP commissioner's statement falsely presented through an AI-generated video. https://dismislab.com/factcheck/dmp-commissioner-ai-video/
  11. Dismislab. (2025b, June 30). GenAI storms Bangladesh's pre-election campaigns. https://en.dismislab.com/genai-bangladesh-pre-election-campaigns/
  12. Dismislab. (2025c, December 15). Khaleda Zia's recovery is depicted in AI-generated images and videos. https://dismislab.com/factcheck/ai-generated-images-videos-khaleda-zia/
  13. Dismislab. (2025d, January 21). Misinformation trends and narratives in Bangladesh's tumultuous 2024. https://en.dismislab.com/misinformation-trends-and-narratives-in-bangladeshs-tumultuous-2024/
  14. Dismislab. (2025e, March 22). A political character attack circulated through a fake profile and a deepfake video. https://dismislab.com/factcheck/fake-profile-deepfake-video/
  15. Dismislab. (2025f, December 26). Tarique Rahman is touching the soil depicted in an AI-generated image. https://dismislab.com/factcheck/tarique-rahman-ai-generated-image/
  16. Dismislab. (2026a, February 28). 2026 election misinformation trends: From “will it happen?” to “was it stolen?”. https://en.dismislab.com/2026-election-misinformation-trends/
  17. Dismislab. (2026b, February 12). Candidate withdrawal announcements fabricated through AI-generated videos. https://dismislab.com/factcheck/ai-video-false-claim-candidates-withdrawal/
  18. Dismislab. (2026c). From election to Iran war: How misinformation themes shifted in early 2026 in Bangladesh. https://en.dismislab.com/bangladesh-misinformation-themes-early-2026/
  19. Dismislab. (2026d, February 9). Mamunul Haque's rally turnout was inflated through an AI-generated image. https://dismislab.com/factcheck/mamunul-haque-ai-generated-rally-image/
  20. Dismislab. (2026e, January 29). The rise of AI, familiar faces in disinformation headlines, and unfamiliar actors behind the scenes. https://en.dismislab.com/bangladesh-misinformation-2025/
  21. Dobber, T., Metoui, N., Trilling, D., Helberger, N., & de Vreese, C. (2021). Do (microtargeted) deepfakes have real effects on political attitudes? The International Journal of Press/Politics, 26(1), 69–91. https://doi.org/10.1177/1940161220944364
  22. Ecker, U. K. H., Lewandowsky, S., Cook, J., Schmid, P., Fazio, L. K., Brashier, N., Kendeou, P., Vraga, E. K., & Amazeen, M. A. (2022). The psychological drivers of misinformation belief and its resistance to correction. Nature Reviews Psychology, 1(1), 13–29. https://doi.org/10.1038/s44159-021-00006-y
  23. Entman, R. M. (1993). Framing: Toward clarification of a fractured paradigm. Journal of Communication, 43(4), 51–58. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.1993.tb01304.x
  24. FactWatch. (2024, February 4). Whisperers amidst the echo chamber: Decoding Bangladesh's 2024 election disinformation. https://www.fact-watch.org/whisperers-amidst-the-echo-chamber-decoding-bangladeshs-2024-election-disinformation/
  25. FactWatch. (2026a, February 9). Army statement about Bangladesh election restrictions fabricated with AI. https://www.fact-watch.org/army-ai-video-bangladesh-election-2026/
  26. FactWatch. (2026b, March 9). Juma is shown with a suspect in Hadi's assassination through an AI-generated image. https://www.fact-watch.org/the-photo-of-juma-with-masood-accused-of-hadis-assassination-was-ai-generated/
  27. FactWatch. (2026c, May 5). A photographer beaten by police is depicted in an AI-generated video. https://www.fact-watch.org/video-was-created-using-ai/
  28. FactWatch. (2026d, April 20). Sheikh Hasina depicted in an AI-generated political image. https://www.fact-watch.org/sheikh-hasina-ai-generated-image/
  29. Farooq, A., van den Hoogen, E., Tulin, M., & de Vreese, C. (2025). Generative AI generating concerns: Citizens’ perspectives during the 2024 European elections. The International Journal of Press/Politics. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1177/19401612251376060
  30. Freelon, D., & Wells, C. (2020). Disinformation as political communication. Political Communication, 37(2), 145–156. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2020.1723755
  31. Guess, A. M., & Lyons, B. A. (2020). Misinformation, disinformation, and online propaganda. In N. Persily & J. A. Tucker (Eds.), Social Media and Democracy (pp. 10–33). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108890960.003
  32. Hameleers, M., Powell, T. E., van der Meer, T. G. L. A., & Bos, L. (2020). A picture paints a thousand lies? The effects and mechanisms of multimodal disinformation and rebuttals disseminated via social media. Political Communication, 37(2), 281–301. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2019.1674979
  33. Hancock, J. T., & Bailenson, J. N. (2021). The social impact of deepfakes. Cyberpsychology, Behaviour, and Social Networking, 24(3), 149–152. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2021.29208.jth
  34. Kapoor, S., & Narayanan, A. (2024). We looked at 78 election deepfakes. Political misinformation is not an AI problem. Knight First Amendment Institute at Columbia University. https://knightcolumbia.org/blog/we-looked-at-78-election-deepfakes-political-misinformation-is-not-an-ai-problem
  35. Krippendorff, K. (2019). Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology (4th ed.). SAGE Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781071878781
  36. Lazer, D. M. J., Baum, M. A., Benkler, Y., Berinsky, A. J., Greenhill, K. M., Menczer, F., Metzger, M. J., Nyhan, B., Pennycook, G., Rothschild, D., Schudson, M., Sloman, S. A., Sunstein, C. R., Thorson, E. A., Watts, D. J., & Zittrain, J. L. (2018). The science of fake news. Science, 359(6380), 1094–1096. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aao2998
  37. Livernoche, V., Musulan, A., Yang, Z., Godbout, J.-F., & Rabbany, R. (2026). Deepfakes in the 2025 Canadian election: Prevalence, partisanship, and platform dynamics. In H. Hacid, Y. Maarek, F. Bonchi, I. Guy, & E. Yilmaz (Eds.), Proceedings of the ACM Web Conference 2026 (pp. 8717–8720). Association for Computing Machinery. https://doi.org/10.1145/3774904.3792948
  38. McGlynn, C., Rackley, E., & Houghton, R. (2017). Beyond “revenge porn”: The continuum of image-based sexual abuse. Feminist Legal Studies, 25, 25–46. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10691-017-9343-2
  39. Messaris, P., & Abraham, L. (2001). The role of images in framing news stories. In S. D. Reese, O. H. Gandy, & A. E. Grant (Eds.), Framing public life: Perspectives on media and our understanding of the social world (pp. 215–226). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
  40. Nyhan, B., & Reifler, J. (2010). When corrections fail: The persistence of political misperceptions. Political Behavior, 32(2), 303–330. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-010-9112-2
  41. Paris, B., & Donovan, J. (2019). Deepfakes and cheap fakes: The manipulation of audio and visual evidence. Data & Society. https://doi.org/10.69985/GTFQ8529
  42. Pennycook, G., & Rand, D. G. (2021). The psychology of fake news. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 25(5), 388–402. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2021.02.007
  43. Persily, N., & Tucker, J. A. (Eds.). (2020). Social media and democracy: The state of the field, prospects for reform. Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108890960
  44. Porter, E., & Wood, T. J. (2021). The global effectiveness of fact-checking: Evidence from simultaneous experiments in Argentina, Nigeria, South Africa, and the United Kingdom. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 118(37), e2104235118. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2104235118
  45. Rahaman, A., Efaz, A. R., Rajon, M. A., Ashraf, A., & Juearia, Z. (2026). Fight against disinformation and fact-checking in Bangladesh’s July 2024 uprising: The digital battlefields. Discover Global Society, 4, Article 8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s44282-026-00337-2
  46. Raso, T. I. (2026, February 28). 2026 election misinformation trends: From “will it happen?” to “was it stolen?” Dismislab. https://en.dismislab.com/2026-election-misinformation-trends/
  47. Rumor Scanner. (2024, January 4). 2023: A year of political misinformation in Bangladesh's electoral landscape. https://rumorscanner.com/en/fact-story-en/2023-political-misinformation/99280
  48. Rumor Scanner. (2025a, March 1). 268 misinformation cases were detected in February. https://rumorscanner.com/en/press-en/press-release-february-2025/141210
  49. Rumor Scanner. (2025b, December 4). Army member statement about a BDR killings report fabricated with AI. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-story/bangladesh-army-bgb-ai-video/179544
  50. Rumor Scanner. (2025c, November 13). An army member supporting the Awami League lockdown is depicted in an AI-generated video. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/awami-league-bangladesh-army-member-ai-video/175943
  51. Rumor Scanner. (2025d, October 15). Army members trampling a photograph of Muhammad Yunus depicted in AI-generated images. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/dr-yunus-trampled-by-army-false-image/171488
  52. Rumor Scanner. (2025e, December 22). An army officer calling Jamaat hypocritical in an AI-generated video. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/claim-ai-video-bangladesh-army-on-jamaat-e-islami/181805
  53. Rumor Scanner. (2025f, December 23). Attack on Asif Nazrul depicted in an AI-generated image. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/attack-on-asif-nazrul/182056
  54. Rumor Scanner. (2025g, September 2). August 2025: Surge of 320 misinformation cases in Bangladesh. https://rumorscanner.com/en/press-en/press-release-august-2025/165601
  55. Rumor Scanner. (2025h, December 17). Awami League's 'Dhaka Attack' programme depicted in an AI-generated video. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/ai-video-awami-league-dhaka-attack/181289
  56. Rumor Scanner. (2025i, December 15). Awami League anti-election protest in Shariatpur depicted in an AI-generated image. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/ai-image-claimed-awami-league-anti-election-protest/180801
  57. Rumor Scanner. (2025j, November 13). The Awami League assembly in Dhaka is depicted in an AI-generated video. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/ai-video-awami-league-assembly-dhaka/175892
  58. Rumor Scanner. (2025k, October 19). Awami League cadre force depicted in an AI-generated video. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/ai-video-awami-league-kader-gang/172073
  59. Rumor Scanner. (2025l, November 12). Awami League lockdown-support protest fabricated with AI. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/awami-league-lockdown-support-ai-video-protest/175782
  60. Rumor Scanner. (2025m, December 29). Awami League procession in Shariatpur depicted through an AI-generated image. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-story/71-media-call/183128
  61. Rumor Scanner. (2025n, December 19). Awami League protest in Bhola depicted through AI-generated media. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/bal-protest-in-bhola-ai-video/181497
  62. Rumor Scanner. (2025o, November 20). Awami League rally against Hasina's death sentence fabricated with AI. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/awami-rally-against-hasina-death-sentence-ai/176896
  63. Rumor Scanner. (2025p, November 14). Awami League sit-in programme in Dhaka depicted in an AI-generated video. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/dhaka-lockdown-10-november-bal-protest/176051
  64. Rumor Scanner. (2025q, December 18). Awami League tribute at Mirpur Martyred Intellectuals Memorial depicted in an AI-generated image. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/awami-league-at-mirpur-martyred-intellectuals-memorial-ai-photo/181467
  65. Rumor Scanner. (2025r, December 1). Barrister Arman is campaigning with a Pakistani flag depicted in an AI-edited image. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/barrister-arman-pakistan-flag-ai-photo/179004
  66. Rumor Scanner. (2025s, November 25). BNP activists arrested over the Grameen Bank fire depicted in an AI-generated video. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/ai-video-spreads-false-bnp-arrest-claim-grameen-bank-fire/177876
  67. Rumor Scanner. (2025t, November 10). BNP nomination vandalism depicted in an AI-generated video. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/bnp-nomination-vandalism/175449
  68. Rumor Scanner. (2025u, September 18). Boat procession on a river depicted in an AI-generated video. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/boat-procession-river-ai/167685
  69. Rumor Scanner. (2025v, August 13). Chattogram Awami League rally depicted in an AI-generated video. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/ctg-awami-league-rally/162571
  70. Rumor Scanner. (2025w, November 12). Chhatra League protest in Patuakhali depicted in an AI-generated video. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/patuakhali-chhatra-league-ai-video-protest/175765
  71. Rumor Scanner. (2025x, September 15). Dhaka Awami League procession depicted in an AI-generated video. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/ai-video-awami-league-procession-dhaka/167201
  72. Rumor Scanner. (2025y, November 13). Dhaka portrayed as a battleground before the Awami League lockdown through an AI-generated video. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/awami-league-dhaka-lockdown-protest-ai-video/175861
  73. Rumor Scanner. (2025z, December 8). Donald Trump criticising Muhammad Yunus and the verdict against Sheikh Hasina depicted in an AI-generated video. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/donald-trump-criticised-dr-yunus-killed-people-and-criticized-hasina-verdict-ai-video/179919
  74. Rumor Scanner. (2025aa, May 21). Donald Trump's saying that Hasina remained the prime minister was fabricated through an AI voice deepfake. https://rumorscanner.com/en/fact-check-en/trump-hasina-deepfake/150603
  75. Rumor Scanner. (2025ab, December 8). Fake 500-taka banknote featuring Abu Sayeed created with AI. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/fake-500-taka-note-with-abu-sayed-photo/179803
  76. Rumor Scanner. (2025ac, December 10). Five foreign flags are placed at the DUCSU entrance in an AI-edited image. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/pakistan-israel-india-usa-uk-flags-in-ducsu/180229
  77. Rumor Scanner. (2025ad, October 9). The Hill armed group, threatening the Bangladesh Army, is depicted in an AI-generated video. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/armed-hill-people-threatening-bangladesh-army/170578
  78. Rumor Scanner. (2025ae, December 22). The Indian flag painted on a Bangladesh border road is depicted in an AI-generated image. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/indo-bd-border-bangladeshi-people-placed-indian-flag-on-road-fake-ai/181926
  79. Rumor Scanner. (2025af, August 30). Indian parliamentarians criticising Muhammad Yunus depicted in AI-generated videos. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/ai-video-indian-parliament-members-about-yunus-hasina/165051
  80. Rumor Scanner. (2025ag, October 5). Jamaat leader Mohammad Taher is shown with the Indian Army chief in an AI-generated image. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/mohammad-taher-indian-army-chief-ai-photo/169881
  81. Rumor Scanner. (2025ah, September 13). Joy Bangla slogans in Chattogram are depicted in an AI-generated video. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/oy-bangla-slogan-in-chittagong/166903
  82. Rumor Scanner. (2025ai, December 24). Juma is shown with Sadik Kayem in AI-generated images. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/zuma-sadik-kayem-photos-created-ai/182259 Rumor Scanner. (2025aj, October 16). Khagrachhari Awami League procession depicted in an AI-generated video. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/ai-video-awami-league-procession-khagrachhari/171596
  83. Rumor Scanner. (2025ak, December 19). Khaleda Zia walking, cared for by Zubaida Rahman, depicted in an AI-generated image. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/ai-photo-zobaida-rahman-khleda-zia/181476
  84. Rumor Scanner. (2025al, December 2). Khaleda Zia's condition at Evercare Hospital is depicted through AI-generated media. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/khaleda-zias-live-situation-ai-video-photo/179115
  85. Rumor Scanner. (2025am, December 23). Mirza Abbas is shown with a suspect in the Hadi killing in an AI-generated image. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/osman-hadi-murderer-ai-fake-photo-mirza-abbas-faisal/182226
  86. Rumor Scanner. (2025an, November 21). Muhammad Yunus' resignation and the transfer of power to the army are depicted in an AI-generated video. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/yunus-did-not-resign-or-hand-power-to-military/177039
  87. Rumor Scanner. (2025ao, December 18). Narendra Modi Victory Day scene fabricated with AI. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/narendra-modis-of-victory-day-ai-photo/181426
  88. Rumor Scanner. (2025ap, October 29). Narendra Modi was welcomed in China, depicted in an AI-edited image. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/billboard-china-displays-modi-photo/173856
  89. Rumor Scanner. (2025aq, October 22). Nathan Bom is returning to Bangladesh, depicted in an AI-generated video. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/nathan-bom-returning-to-bangladesh-ai-video/172806
  90. Rumor Scanner. (2025ar, December 3). NCP leader Jannat Ara Rumi was targeted with an AI-generated sexualised image. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/farzana-ruma-ncp-ai-photo/179236
  91. Rumor Scanner. (2025as, November 27). An AI-generated video depicts 100,000 Hindu voters refusing to vote without the Awami League. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/ai-video-spreads-false-jhenaidah-hindu-bal/178275
  92. Rumor Scanner. (2025at, December 9). Pinaki Bhattacharya is shown in a secret meeting with Ajit Doval and Krishna in an AI-generated image. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/pinaki-doval-krishna-ai-image/180085
  93. Rumor Scanner. (2025au, August 31). The police officer's statement against the BNP was fabricated with AI. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/police-officer-statement-ai-video/165406
  94. Rumor Scanner. (2025av, November 30). The police officer video involving Tarique Rahman was fabricated with AI. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/tarique-rahman-police-officer-ai-video/178750
  95. Rumor Scanner. (2025aw, December 8). Police protesting Awami League arrests in an AI-generated video. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/ai-video-bd-police-awami-league/179821
  96. Rumor Scanner. (2025ax, October 23). The police's six-point demands were presented through an AI-generated video. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/ai-video-police-6-point/172884
  97. Rumor Scanner. (2025ay, December 10). Police statement about an election survey fabricated with AI. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/election-survey-police-ai-video/180251
  98. Rumor Scanner. (2025az, December 7). Police statement blaming the BNP for a Jamaat-BNP clash fabricated with AI. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/pabna-jamaat-e-islami-bnp-clash-police-officer-comment-ai-video/179667
  99. Rumor Scanner. (2025ba, December 23). Police statement concerning Khaleda Zia and Sharif Osman Hadi fabricated with AI. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/ai-video-police-hadi-khaleda-zia/182005
  100. Rumor Scanner. (2025bb, October 31). Police statement concerning Mufti Muhibullah fabricated through an AI-generated video. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/police-ai-video-mufti-muhibullah/174079
  101. Rumor Scanner. (2025bc, December 18). Rashed Khan was detained over an extramarital affair allegation depicted in an AI-generated image. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/rashed-khan-extra-marital-affairs-mob-lynching/181444
  102. Rumor Scanner. (2025bd, July 1). Rumor Scanner identifies 311 pieces of misinformation in Bangladesh during June. https://rumorscanner.com/en/fact-file-en/press-release-june- 2025/156589
  103. Rumor Scanner. (2025be, October 10). Sabre Hossain Chowdhury meeting three ambassadors, as depicted in an AI-generated image. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/ai-photo-saber-chowdhury-meeting/170651
  104. Rumor Scanner. (2025bf, December 14). Sadik Kayem is shown with a suspect in the Osman Hadi shooting through an AI-generated image. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/osman-hadi-attacker-shadik-kayem-friend-ai-photo-false-photocard/180690
  105. Rumor Scanner. (2025bg, December 23). Sajeeb Wazed's Victory Day message was fabricated through an AI-generated video. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/sajeeb-wazed-ai-video-victory-day/182024
  106. Rumor Scanner. (2025bh, October 8). Shahidul Alam, detained by Israeli forces, depicted in an AI-generated image. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/shahidul-alam-israel-detain-ai-photo/170526
  107. Rumor Scanner. (2025bi, December 28). Sharif Osman Hadi's graffiti, erased at KUET, is depicted in an AI-generated image. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/ai-image-kuet-graffiti/182970
  108. Rumor Scanner. (2025bj, December 31). Sharif Osman Hadi's graffiti in Kashmir is depicted in an AI-generated image. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/osman-hadi-graffiti-kashmir-ai/183609
  109. Rumor Scanner. (2025bk, December 17). Sharif Osman Hadi, opening his eyes in Singapore, is depicted in an AI-generated image. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/false-claim-osman-hadi-ai-image/181223
  110. Rumor Scanner. (2025bl, December 24). Sharif Osman Hadi is shown with his son in an AI-generated video. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/ai-video-osman-hadi-son/182284
  111. Rumor Scanner. (2025bm, December 22). Sharif Osman Hadi's funeral is depicted in an AI-generated image. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/osman-hadi-funeral-ai/181892
  112. Rumor Scanner. (2025bn, October 11). Sheikh Hasina announces one-party rule in an AI-generated video. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/ai-video-sheikh-hasina-one-party-rule/170738
  113. Rumor Scanner. (2025bo, October 15). Sheikh Hasina meeting senior Indian officials depicted in an AI-generated image. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/claim-election-hasina-ai-photo-meeting/171316
  114. Rumor Scanner. (2025bp, December 11). Soldiers speaking about Sheikh Hasina's return in AI-generated videos. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/ai-video-bdarmy-hasina-return/180438
  115. Rumor Scanner. (2025bq, December 6). Step-down Yunus posters in Delhi, depicted in AI-generated images. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/ai-photo-stepdown-yunus-delhi/179601
  116. Rumor Scanner. (2025br, December 25). Tarique Rahman at London Heathrow is depicted in an AI-generated image. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/tarique-rahman-london-airport/182575
  117. Rumor Scanner. (2025bs, December 4). Tarique Rahman, returning to Bangladesh, is depicted in multiple AI-generated images. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/ai-photo-tarique-returning-bd/179468
  118. Rumor Scanner. (2025bt, November 19). Tarique Rahman is secretly eating during a hunger strike, depicted in an AI-generated video. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/tarek-secretly-eats-food-during-hunger-strike-ai-video/176688
  119. Rumor Scanner. (2025bu, December 30). Tarique Rahman shown at Khaleda Zia’s hospital bedside in an AI-generated image. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-story/tarique-rahman-return-ai-images/183292
  120. Rumor Scanner. (2025bv, December 28). Tarique Rahman touching the soil after returning is depicted in an AI-generated image. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/tarique-rahman-soil-touch-photo-ai-generated/183051
  121. Rumor Scanner. (2025bw, December 29). Tarique Rahman is working in a field with a spade depicted in an AI-generated image. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/tarique-rahman-field-work-photo-ai/183187
  122. Rumor Scanner. (2025bx, December 31). Tarique Rahman's message after Khaleda Zia's death was fabricated through an AI-generated video. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/ai-video-tarique-khaleda-zia/183757
  123. Rumor Scanner. (2025by December 23). Tasnim Jara and Sarjis Alam sitting together at night are depicted in an AI-generated image. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/tasnim-jara-sarjis-alam-night-photo-ai-generated/181975
  124. Rumor Scanner. (2025bz, October 14). Tulip Siddiq commenting on Sheikh Hasina's national address in an AI-generated video. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/ai-video-tulip-siddiq-sheikh-hasina-speech/171180
  125. Rumor Scanner. (2025ca, November 17). Two people were killed in a bomb attack on an Awami League rally depicted in an AI-generated video. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/two-killed-bomb-attack-al-rally-ai-video/176336
  126. Rumor Scanner. (2025cb, December 28). Umama Fatema marrying a DUCSU leader depicted in an AI-generated image. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/ai-photo-musaddiq-umama-fatema-marriage/182921
  127. Rumor Scanner. (2025cc, May 25). A wave of misinformation surrounding rumours of Dr Yunus's resignation. https://rumorscanner.com/en/press-en/dr-yunus-resign-misinformation/151386
  128. Rumor Scanner. (2025cd, December 5). A woman is shown sitting on Sadik Kayem's lap in an AI-generated image. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/shadik-kayem-hugs-girl-fake-ai/179427
  129. Rumor Scanner. (2025ce, December 24). Zaima Rahman at the national memorial is depicted in an AI-generated image. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/zaima-rahman-national-memorial-photo-ai/182424
  130. Rumor Scanner. (2025cf, December 28). Zaima Rahman's gratitude message was fabricated through an AI-generated video. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/zaima-rahman-gratitude-message-ai-video/183012
  131. Rumor Scanner. (2026a). Actor Hasan Masood is depicted holding a pro-fascist poster in an AI-generated image. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/ai-generated-image-of-actor-hasan-masood-viral-as-real-photo-fake/187627
  132. Rumor Scanner. (2026b, January 28). Army chief's statement on allowing Awami League activities fabricated with AI. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/ai-video-awami-league-free-for-activities/188368
  133. Rumor Scanner. (2026c, January 27). Army officer's statement about the Awami League return fabricated with AI. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/claim-ai-video-army-officers-quote-on-bal-returns/188210
  134. Rumor Scanner. (2026d, January 26). An army officer's statement against Jamaat in the election was fabricated through an AI-generated video. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/claim-ai-video-army-officers-quote-on-jamaat/187936
  135. Rumor Scanner. (2026e, January 27). Awami League procession depicted in an AI-generated video during the 2026 cycle. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/ai-video-awami-league-procession/188160
  136. Rumor Scanner. (2026f, January 1). Awami League roadblock protest depicted in an AI-generated image. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/ai-photo-awami-league-protest/184101
  137. Rumor Scanner. (2026g, January 4). Bangladeshi Hindu woman appealing to Indians depicted in an AI-generated video. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/bangladeshi-hindu-girl-cry-ai-video-claim/184341
  138. Rumor Scanner. (2026h, February 2). BNP public meeting turnout inflated through AI-generated photographs. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/fake-ai-photos-viral-claiming-show-bnp-public-meeting/189425
  139. Rumor Scanner. (2026i, January 20). Celebrities campaigning for Hasina and the Awami League are depicted in AI-generated images. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/ai-images-dipjol-polash-mahmud-ullah-support-hasina-al/186815
  140. Rumor Scanner. (2026j, January 12). Chhatra League general secretary arrested depicted in an AI-generated image. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/ai-picture-league-general-secretary-arrest/185756
  141. Rumor Scanner. (2026k, January 13). Election postponement announcement attributed to Yunus through an AI-generated video. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/claim-elections-scheduled-for-12th-postponed/185827
  142. Rumor Scanner. (2026l, January 13). Faisal Karim Masud was arrested at the airport, depicted in an AI-generated image. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/ai-image-claim-faisal-karim-masud-arrested-airport/185861
  143. Rumor Scanner. (2026m, January 3). Fatema is dining with the Tarique Rahman family, depicted in an AI-generated image. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/fatema-with-tarique-family-ai/184227
  144. Rumor Scanner. (2026n, January 6). Fatema visiting Khaleda Zia's grave is depicted in an AI-generated image. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/false-claim-khaleda-zia-grave-fatema-ai-generated-image/184733
  145. Rumor Scanner. (2026o, January 27). Hasnat Abdullah joining the BNP at Zaima Rahman's request is depicted in an AI-generated image. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/hasnat-abdullah-joined-bnp-zaima-rahman-request/188139
  146. Rumor Scanner. (2026p, January 19). Hasnat Abdullah, joining the BNP, is depicted in an AI-generated image. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/hasnat-abdullah-joined-bnp-fake-claim-ai-photo/186590
  147. Rumor Scanner. (2026q, January 5). Jamaat Amir meeting Ajit Doval depicted in an AI-generated image. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/janaat-ameer-ajit-doval-meeting-ai-photo-fake-photocard/184477
  148. Rumor Scanner. (2026r, January 15). Jamaat is refusing more than 30 seats to Charmonai Pir, fabricated in an AI-generated video. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/ai-video-jamaat-will-not-give-more-than-30-seats-to-charmonai-pir/186262
  149. Rumor Scanner. (2026s, January 8). JnUCSU vice-president election result announced through an AI-generated video. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/ai-video-jnucsu-election-2026-result/185207
  150. Rumor Scanner. (2026t, January 7). Khokon Das's wife is making a communal statement depicted in an AI-generated video. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/khokon-das-murder-communal-attack-wife-ai-video/184926
  151. Rumor Scanner. (2026u, January 26). Police criticism of BNP loan-defaulter candidates was fabricated through an AI-generated video. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/claim-police-ai-video-bnp-election-2026/187946
  152. Rumor Scanner. (2026v, February 12). A police officer is shown supporting the Awami League in an AI-generated video. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/police-officer-supports-awami-league-ai-video/192675
  153. Rumor Scanner. (2026w, January 13). The police statement linking the gas crisis to Sheikh Hasina was fabricated using AI. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/ai-video-lpg-gas-sheikh-hasina-police-statement/185851
  154. Rumor Scanner. (2026x, January 21). The police statement that an election was impossible without the Awami League was fabricated with AI. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/ai-video-police-voting-awami-league/186971
  155. Rumor Scanner. (2026y, January 7). Sajeeb Wazed Joy, meeting the South Korean president, depicted in an AI-generated image. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/ai-picture-joy-korean-president/184880
  156. Rumor Scanner. (2026z, January 14). A soldier seeking votes for Jamaat is depicted in an AI-generated video. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/claim-army-staff-seeks-vote-for-jamaat-e-islami/185969
  157. Rumor Scanner. (2026aa, January 4). Sylhet students marching for Hasina and the Awami League are depicted in an AI-generated image. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/sheikh-hasina-awami-back-students-rally-ai/184322
  158. Rumor Scanner. (2026ab, January 3). Tasnim Jara is calling the NCP a 'Razakar party' in an AI-generated video. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/ai-video-tasnim-zara-ncp/184178
  159. Rumor Scanner. (2026ac, January 19). Yunus, Tasnim Jara and Tamim Iqbal are campaigning against the referendum 'Yes' vote in AI-generated images. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/ai-images-against-yes-vote-dr-yunus-tasnim-jara-tamim-iqbal/186578
  160. Rumor Scanner. (2026ad, January 4). Zaima Rahman was targeted through a sexually defamatory AI-edited image. https://rumorscanner.com/fact-check/edited-picture-of-zaima-rahman-false-claim-porn-star/184368
  161. Schiff, K. J., Schiff, D. S., & Bueno, N. S. (2025). The liar’s dividend: Can politicians claim misinformation to evade accountability? American Political Science Review, 119(1), 71–90. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055423001454
  162. Shamim, S. (2026). Bangladesh election results 2026: Who won, who lost, what’s next? https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2026/2/13/bangladesh-election-results-2026-who-won-who-lost-whats-next
  163. Simon, F. M., Altay, S., & Mercier, H. (2023). Misinformation reloaded? Fears about the impact of generative AI on misinformation are overblown. Harvard Kennedy School Misinformation Review, 4(5). https://doi.org/10.37016/mr-2020-127
  164. Sundar, S. S. (2008). The MAIN model: A heuristic approach to understanding technology effects on credibility. In M. J. Metzger & A. J. Flanagin (Eds.), Digital media, youth, and credibility (pp. 73–100). MIT Press. https://doi.org/10.1162/dmal.9780262562324.073
  165. Tandoc, E. C., Lim, Z. W., & Ling, R. (2018). Defining “fake news”: A typology of scholarly definitions. Digital Journalism, 6(2), 137–153. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2017.1360143
  166. Tracy, S. J. (2010). Qualitative quality: Eight big tent criteria for excellent qualitative research. Qualitative Inquiry, 16(10), 837–851. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077800410383121
  167. Vaccari, C., & Chadwick, A. (2020). Deepfakes and disinformation: Exploring the impact of synthetic political video on deception, uncertainty, and trust in news. Social Media + Society, 6(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1177/2056305120903408
  168. Vosoughi, S., Roy, D., & Aral, S. (2018). The spread of true and false news online. Science, 359(6380), 1146–1151. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aap9559
  169. Walter, N., Cohen, J., Holbert, R. L., & Morag, Y. (2020). Fact-checking: A meta-analysis of what works and for whom. Political Communication, 37(3), 350–375. https://doi.org/10.1080/10584609.2019.1668894
  170. Wardle, C., & Derakhshan, H. (2017). Information disorder: Toward an interdisciplinary framework for research and policy making. Council of Europe. https://rm.coe.int/information-disorder-report-version-august-2018/16808c9c77
  171. Weikmann, T., & Lecheler, S. (2023). Visual disinformation in a digital age: A literature synthesis and research agenda. New Media & Society, 25(12), 3696–3713. https://doi.org/10.1177/14614448221141648 Westerlund, M. (2019). The emergence of deepfake technology: A review. Technology Innovation Management Review, 9(11), 39–52. https://doi.org/10.22215/timreview/1282
  172. Woolley, S. C., & Howard, P. N. (Eds.). (2018). Computational propaganda: political parties, politicians, and political manipulation on social media. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190931407.001.0001