SavedAdd your journal

Journals / Kafkas Üniversitesi Spor Bilimleri Dergisi / 2026 / Cilt: 6 Sayı: 2026

Neural and Muscular Adaptations to Resistance Training: Neuromuscular and Molecular Mechanisms

Direnç Antrenmanına Bağlı Nöral ve Kassal Adaptasyonlar: Nöromüsküler ve Moleküler Mekanizmalar

Oğuzhan Tuncel(IĞDIR ÜNİVERSİTESİ)0000-0002-7434-2017
Ahmet Atlı(IĞDIR ÜNİVERSİTESİ)0000-0002-7516-2675
Aynur Eraslan(IĞDIR ÜNİVERSİTESİ)0009-0009-1893-1990
Gamze Düger(IĞDIR ÜNİVERSİTESİ)0009-0003-9468-1942
Zemzem Aras(IĞDIR ÜNİVERSİTESİ)0009-0004-9413-2545
Pages
174–196
Publication Date
2026-09-23
DOI
—
🏛️Bibliographic metadata and full text access for this article are provided via DergiPark.
DergiPark Record ↗
✨

AI Summary & Key Takeaways

AI Insight
⚡ TL;DR(Too Long; Didn't Read)

Results: The findings indicate that strength gains observed during the early stages of resistance training are primarily attributed to neural adaptations.

📌 3 Key Takeaways

🎯
Objective & Hypothesis:Purpose: The aim of this review was to examine neural and muscular adaptations induced by resistance training within the framework of neuromuscular, cellular, and molecular mechanisms, to elucidate their roles in strength and performance development, and to provide implications for training applications.
📊
Key Findings & Data:Conclusion: Performance improvements resulting from resistance training are mediated by a multidimensional adaptive process involving the interaction of neural and muscular mechanisms.
💡
Conclusion & Impact:Results: The findings indicate that strength gains observed during the early stages of resistance training are primarily attributed to neural adaptations.
🔬Design:Review & Systematic Survey
📍Scope:Comprehensive Sample
⚙️Variables:Direnç antrenmanı · nöral adaptasyon · kas hipertrofisi

Abstract

Purpose: The aim of this review was to examine neural and muscular adaptations induced by resistance training within the framework of neuromuscular, cellular, and molecular mechanisms, to elucidate their roles in strength and performance development, and to provide implications for training applications. Method: This study was conducted using a traditional narrative review approach. Fundamental theoretical sources, review articles, and relevant research addressing neural and muscular adaptations to resistance training were examined. The available literature was conceptually organized and narratively synthesized under the themes of neural adaptations, muscle hypertrophy, neuromuscular mechanisms, cellular and molecular processes, and factors influencing adaptation. No systematic data extraction, quantitative synthesis, or meta-analysis was performed. Results: The findings indicate that strength gains observed during the early stages of resistance training are primarily attributed to neural adaptations. Improvements in motor unit participation (recruitment), firing frequency, synchronization, and intermuscular coordination play a critical role in this process. In contrast, long-term adaptations are predominantly associated with muscle hypertrophy, protein synthesis, satellite cell activation, and structural remodeling mediated by the mTOR signaling pathway. Furthermore, factors such as genetic background, epigenetic regulation, nutritional status, age, sex, and training variables substantially influence the magnitude and direction of adaptive responses. Conclusion: Performance improvements resulting from resistance training are mediated by a multidimensional adaptive process involving the interaction of neural and muscular mechanisms. Therefore, training programs should be designed using a holistic approach that considers neuromuscular efficiency, individual differences, recovery processes, and muscle hypertrophy in order to optimize long-term performance development.

Özet

Amaç: Bu derlemenin amacı, direnç antrenmanına bağlı olarak gelişen nöral ve kassal adaptasyonları nöromüsküler, hücresel ve moleküler mekanizmalar çerçevesinde incelemek; bu adaptasyonların kuvvet ve performans gelişimindeki rollerini ortaya koymak ve antrenman uygulamalarına yönelik çıkarımlar sunmaktır. Yöntem: Bu çalışma, geleneksel anlatısal derleme yaklaşımıyla hazırlanmıştır. Direnç antrenmanına bağlı nöral ve kassal adaptasyonları açıklayan temel kuramsal kaynaklar, derleme makaleleri ve konuya ilişkin araştırmalar incelenmiştir. Literatürde yer alan bilgiler; nöral adaptasyonlar, kas hipertrofisi, nöromüsküler mekanizmalar, hücresel ve moleküler süreçler ile adaptasyonu etkileyen faktörler başlıkları altında kavramsal olarak sınıflandırılmış ve anlatısal biçimde sentezlenmiştir. Çalışmada sistematik veri çıkarımı, nicel analiz veya meta-analiz yapılmamıştır. Bulgular: Literatür bulguları, direnç antrenmanının erken dönemlerinde kuvvet artışının büyük ölçüde nöral adaptasyonlardan kaynaklandığını göstermektedir. Motor ünite katılımı (recruitment), ateşleme frekansı, senkronizasyon ve kaslar arası koordinasyondaki gelişmeler bu süreçte belirleyici rol oynamaktadır. Uzun dönemli adaptasyonlarda ise kas hipertrofisi, protein sentezi, uydu hücre aktivasyonu ve mTOR sinyal yolu aracılığıyla gerçekleşen yapısal değişimler ön plana çıkmaktadır. Ayrıca genetik yapı, epigenetik düzenlemeler, beslenme, yaş, cinsiyet ve antrenman değişkenleri gibi faktörlerin adaptasyon süreçlerini önemli ölçüde etkilediği görülmektedir. Sonuç: Direnç antrenmanına bağlı performans gelişimi, nöral ve kassal mekanizmaların karşılıklı etkileşimi sonucu ortaya çıkan çok boyutlu bir adaptasyon sürecidir. Optimal performans artışı için antrenman programlarının yalnızca hipertrofi veya kuvvet odaklı değil, nöromüsküler verimliliği, bireysel farklılıkları ve toparlanma süreçlerini de dikkate alan bütüncül bir yaklaşımla planlanması gerekmektedir.

🔖

Cite This Article

Tuncel, O., Atlı, A., Eraslan, A., Düger, G., Aras, Z. (2026). Neural and Muscular Adaptations to Resistance Training: Neuromuscular and Molecular Mechanisms. Kafkas Üniversitesi Spor Bilimleri Dergisi, Cilt: 6 Sayı: 2026, 174–196. https://ajindex.com/articles/1516521

📄 Full Text PDF Viewer

📄

PDF görüntüleyici hazırlanıyor...

References (36)

  1. Aagaard, P., Simonsen, E. B., Andersen, J. L., Magnusson, P., & Dyhre‐Poulsen, P. (2002). Increased rate of force development and neural drive of human skeletal muscle following resistance training. Journal of Applied Physiology, 93(4), 1318–1326. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00283.2002
  2. Ahmetov, I. I., & Fedotovskaya, O. N. (2015). Sports genomics: Current state of knowledge and future directions. Advances in Clinical Chemistry, 70, 247–314. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.acc.2015.03.003
  3. Bhasin, S., Woodhouse, L., & Storer, T. W. (2001). Proof of the effect of testosterone on skeletal muscle. American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism, 281(6), E1172–E1181. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.2001.281.6.E1172
  4. Bompa, T. O., & Buzzichelli, C. (2019). Periodization: Theory and methodology of training (6th ed.). Human Kinetics.
  5. Bompa, T. O., & Haff, G. G. (2015). Periodization: Theory and methodology of training (5th ed.). Human Kinetics.
  6. Bouchard, C., & Rankinen, T. (2001). Individual differences in response to regular physical activity. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 33(Suppl. 6), S446–S451.
  7. Churchward-Venne, T. A., Burd, N. A., Mitchell, C. J., West, D. W. D., Philp, A., Marcotte, G. R., Baker, S. K., Baar, K., & Phillips, S. M. (2012). Supplementation of a suboptimal protein dose with leucine or essential amino acids stimulates myofibrillar protein synthesis at rest and following resistance exercise in men. The Journal of Physiology, 590(11), 2751–2765. https://doi.org/10.1113/jphysiol.2012.228833
  8. Del Vecchio, A., Casolo, A., Negro, F., Scorcelletti, M., Bazzucchi, I., Enoka, R. M., & Farina, D. (2019). The increase in muscle force after 4 weeks of strength training is mediated by adaptations in motor unit recruitment and rate coding. The Journal of Physiology, 597(7), 1873–1887.
  9. Denham, J., Marques, F. Z., O'Brien, B. J., & Charchar, F. J. (2016). Exercise: Putting action into our epigenome. Sports Medicine, 46(5), 631–641. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-015-0446-6
  10. Enoka, R. M. (2008). Neuromechanics of human movement (4th ed.). Human Kinetics.
  11. Farina, D., Merletti, R., & Enoka, R. M. (2014). The extraction of neural strategies from the surface EMG: An update. Journal of Applied Physiology, 117(11), 1215–1230. https://doi.org/10.1152/japplphysiol.00162.2014
  12. Farthing, J. P. (2009). Cross-education of strength depends on limb dominance. Exercise and Sport Sciences Reviews, 37(4), 179–187. https://doi.org/10.1097/JES.0b013e3181b7ebab
  13. Faulkner, J. A., Larkin, L. M., Claflin, D. R., & Brooks, S. V. (2007). Age-related changes in skeletal muscles: Implications for physical performance. Clinical and Experimental Pharmacology and Physiology, 34(11), 1091–1096. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1440-1681.2007.04752.x
  14. Folland, J. P., & Williams, A. G. (2007). The adaptations to strength training: Morphological and neurological contributions to increased strength. Sports Medicine, 37(2), 145–168. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200737020-00004
  15. Gabriel, D. A., Kamen, G., & Frost, G. (2006). Neural adaptations to resistive exercise: Mechanisms and recommendations for training practices. Sports Medicine, 36(2), 133–149. https://doi.org/10.2165/00007256-200636020-00004
  16. Grgic, J., Schoenfeld, B. J., Orazem, J., & Sabol, F. (2017). Effects of resistance training periodization on muscular strength: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PeerJ, 5, e3695. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.3695
  17. Günay, M., Tamer, K., & Cicioğlu, İ. (2018). Spor fizyolojisi ve performans ölçümü. Gazi Kitabevi. Issurin, V. B. (2010). New horizons for the methodology and physiology of training periodization. Sports Medicine, 40(3), 189–206. https://doi.org/10.2165/11319770-000000000-00000
  18. Jäger, R., Kerksick, C. M., Campbell, B. I., Cribb, P. J., Wells, S. D., Skwiat, T. M., Purpura, M., Ziegenfuss, T. N., Ferrando, A. A., Arent, S. M., Smith-Ryan, A. E., Stout, J. R., Arciero, P. J., Ormsbee, M. J., Taylor, L. W., Wilborn, C. D., Kalman, D. S., Kreider, R. B., Willoughby, D. S.,. Antonio, J. (2017). International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: Protein and exercise. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 14(1), 20. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-017-0177-8
  19. Jenkins, N. D. M., Housh, T. J., Buckner, S. L., Bergstrom, H. C., Cochrane, K. C., Hill, E. C., Smith, C. M., Schmidt, R. J., Johnson, G. O., & Cramer, J. T. (2016). Neuromuscular adaptations following resistance training. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 30(8), 2174–2185. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0000000000001321
  20. Kadi, F., Charifi, N., Denis, C., Lexell, J., Andersen, J. L., Schjerling, P., Olsen, S., & Kjaer, M. (2004). The behaviour of satellite cells in response to exercise: What have we learned from human studies? Pflügers Archiv–European Journal of Physiology, 451(2), 319–327.
  21. McArdle, W. D., Katch, F. I., & Katch, V. L. (2015). Exercise physiology: Nutrition, energy, and human performance (8th ed.). Wolters Kluwer.
  22. McGee, S. L., & Hargreaves, M. (2019). Epigenetics and exercise. Trends in Endocrinology & Metabolism, 30(9), 636–645. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tem.2019.06.002
  23. Pascoe, D. D., Gladden, L. B., & Foley, J. M. (2014). Central fatigue and neuromuscular function during exercise. Journal of Applied Physiology, 117(11), 1231–1238.
  24. Petrella, J. K., Kim, J. S., Cross, J. M., Kosek, D. J., & Bamman, M. M. (2008). Efficacy of myonuclear addition may explain differential myofiber growth among resistance-trained young and older men and women. American Journal of Physiology-Endocrinology and Metabolism, 295(1), E197–E206. https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.90255.2008
  25. Phillips, S. M. (2014). A brief review of critical processes in exercise-induced muscular hypertrophy. Sports Medicine, 44(Suppl. 1), S71–S77. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-014-0152-3
  26. Ranieri, F., & Di Lazzaro, V. (2012). Plasticity of the human motor cortex and central fatigue. Clinical Neurophysiology, 123(7), 1281–1283. Ratamess, N. A. (2017). Development of resistance training programs. Human Kinetics.
  27. Sale, D. G. (1988). Neural adaptation to resistance training. Medicine & Science in Sports & Exercise, 20(Suppl. 5), S135–S145.
  28. Sale, D. G. (2003). Neural adaptation to strength training. In P. V. Komi (Ed.), Strength and power in sport (2nd ed., pp. 281–314). Blackwell Science.
  29. Schoenfeld, B. J. (2010). The mechanisms of muscle hypertrophy and their application to resistance training. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research, 24(10), 2857–2872. https://doi.org/10.1519/JSC.0b013e3181e840f3
  30. Škarabot, J., Brownstein, C. G., Casolo, A., Del Vecchio, A., & Ansdell, P. (2021). The knowns and unknowns of neural adaptations to resistance training. European Journal of Applied Physiology, 121(3), 675–685.
  31. Smith, G. I., Atherton, P., Reeds, D. N., Mohammed, B. S., Rankin, D., Rennie, M. J., & Mittendorfer, B. (2011). Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids augment the muscle protein anabolic response to hyperinsulinaemia–hyperaminoacidaemia in healthy young and middle-aged men and women. Clinical Science, 121(6), 267–278. https://doi.org/10.1042/CS20100597
  32. Tipton, K. D., & Wolfe, R. R. (2001). Exercise, protein metabolism, and muscle growth. International Journal of Sport Nutrition and Exercise Metabolism, 11(1), 109–132. https://doi.org/10.1123/ijsnem.11.1.109
  33. Vingren, J. L., Kraemer, W. J., Ratamess, N. A., Anderson, J. M., Volek, J. S., & Maresh, C. M. (2010). Testosterone physiology in resistance exercise and training. Sports Medicine, 40(12), 1037–1053. https://doi.org/10.2165/11536910-000000000-00000
  34. Zatsiorsky, V. M., & Kraemer, W. J. (2006). Science and practice of strength training (2nd ed.). Human Kinetics.
  35. Zierath, J. R., & Hawley, J. A. (2004). Skeletal muscle fiber type and plasticity. Pflügers Archiv–European Journal of Physiology, 447(5), 497–506. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00424-003-1195-4
  36. Jäger, R., Kerksick, C. M., Campbell, B. I., Cribb, P. J., Wells, S. D., Skwiat, T. M., Purpura, M., Ziegenfuss, T. N., Ferrando, A. A., Arent, S. M., Smith-Ryan, A. E., Stout, J. R., Arciero, P. J., Ormsbee, M. J., Taylor, L. W., Wilborn, C. D., Kalman, D. S., Kreider, R. B., Willoughby, D. S.,. Antonio, J. (2017). International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: Protein and exercise. Journal of the International Society of Sports Nutrition, 14(1), 20. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12970-017-0177-8