Journals / Bartın Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi / 2026 / Volume: 14 Issue: 3

Are Teachers Cyber Hygienic? An Investigation into the Relationship between Teachers' Cyber Hygiene Status and Digital Data Security Awareness

Şahin Bayzan(Bilgi Teknolojileri ve İletişim Kurumu)0000-0002-5610-0006
Pages
—
Publication Date
2025-07-31
🏛️Bibliographic metadata and full text access for this article are provided via DergiPark.
DergiPark Record ↗
✨

AI Summary & Key Takeaways

AI Insight
⚡ TL;DR(Too Long; Didn't Read)

Conclusion: The results of the study show that there is a moderate positive relationship between the teachers' cyber hygiene levels and their digital data security awareness levels.

📌 3 Key Takeaways

🎯
Objective & Hypothesis:Objective: The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between teachers' cyber hygiene and their digital data security awareness.
📊
Key Findings & Data:Method: The sample of the study consists of 7,170 volunteer teachers randomly selected from among teachers in different branches working in public and private schools in eighty-one provinces affiliated to the Ministry of National Education of the Republic of Turkey.
💡
Conclusion & Impact:Conclusion: The results of the study show that there is a moderate positive relationship between the teachers' cyber hygiene levels and their digital data security awareness levels.
🔬Design:Research Article
📍Scope:Comprehensive Sample
⚙️Variables:Information literacy · 21st century skills · human-computer interface

Abstract

Objective: The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship between teachers' cyber hygiene and their digital data security awareness. Method: The sample of the study consists of 7,170 volunteer teachers randomly selected from among teachers in different branches working in public and private schools in eighty-one provinces affiliated to the Ministry of National Education of the Republic of Turkey. Descriptive analysis was used to summarise the general characteristics of the data, multiple regression analysis was used to examine the effect of more than one independent variable on a dependent variable, Pearson Correlation analysis was used to evaluate the relationship between the variables, and a Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was used to check the normality distribution of the continuous variables. Findings: It was determined that the male teachers had higher cyber hygiene and digital data security awareness levels than the female teachers. As age increased, the teachers' cyber hygiene levels decreased and their digital data security awareness increased. The teachers' professional seniority, location, social network and internet usage experiences, daily internet and social network usage time and the number of social media accounts they had affected their cyber hygiene and digital data security awareness levels. In addition, it was determined that teachers who used the Internet for positive purposes had higher cyber hygiene and digital data security awareness compared to others. Conclusion: The results of the study show that there is a moderate positive relationship between the teachers' cyber hygiene levels and their digital data security awareness levels.

🔖

Cite This Article

Bayzan, Ş. (2025). Are Teachers Cyber Hygienic? An Investigation into the Relationship between Teachers' Cyber Hygiene Status and Digital Data Security Awareness. Bartın Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, Volume: 14 Issue: 3. https://doi.org/10.14686/buefad.1549597

📄 Full Text PDF Viewer

📄

PDF görüntüleyici hazırlanıyor...

References (107)

  1. Agresti, A. (2018). Statistical Methods for the Social Sciences (5th ed.). Pearson.
  2. Akdemir, N., & Lawless, C. J. (2020). Exploring the human factor in cyber-enabled and cyber-dependent crime victimisation: a lifestyle routine activities approach. Internet Research, 30(6), 1665–1687. https://doi.org/10.1108/intr-10-2019-0400
  3. Aldawood, H., & Skinner, G. (2020). Analysis and findings of social engineering industry experts Explorative interviews: Perspectives on measures, tools, and solutions. IEEE Access, 8, 67321–67329. https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2020.2983280
  4. Argyridou, E., Nifakos, S., Laoudias, C., Panda, S., Panaousis, E., Chandramouli, K., Navarro-Llobet, D., Zamorano, J. M., Papachristou, P., & Bonacina, S. (2023). Cyber hygiene methodology for raising cybersecurity and data privacy awareness in health care organizations: Concept study. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 25, e41294. https://doi.org/10.2196/41294
  5. Avcı, Ü., & Durak, H. Y. (2022). Examination of digital citizenship, online information searching strategy and information literacy depending on changing state of experience in using digital technologies during COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Information Science, 50(5), 1098–1111. https://doi.org/10.1177/01655515221114455
  6. Avci, Ü., & Oruç, O. (2020). Üniversite öğrencilerinin kişisel siber güvenlik davranışları ve bilgi güvenliği farkındalıklarının incelenmesi. İnönü Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 21(1), 284–303. https://doi.org/10.17679/inuefd.526390
  7. Bada, M., & Nurse, J. R. (2019). The social and psychological impact of cyberattacks. In Elsevier eBooks (pp. 73–92). https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-816203-3.00004-6
  8. Baldwin, L., Gores, J., & Kilbride, J. (2023). Social media use and awareness of privacy concerns. Concordia Journal of Communication Research, 8. https://doi.org/10.54416/hqwt8424
  9. Bıkmaz, Z. (2017). Sağlık yönetimi bölümü öğrencilerinin mobil güvenlik farkındalığı ve dijital veri güvenliği farkındalıklarının belirlenmesi. Uluslararası Yönetim Bilişim Sistemleri ve Bilgisayar Bilimleri Dergisi, 1(1), 22-30. Bonvino, C., & Giorgino, M. (2022). Economics of data systematic review for planning strategies in the insurtech industry. European Conference on Innovation and Entrepreneurship, 17(1), 66–75. https://doi.org/10.34190/ecie.17.1.597
  10. Butler, R. (2020). A systematic literature review of the factors affecting smartphone user threat avoidance behaviour. Information and Computer Security, 28(4), 555–574. https://doi.org/10.1108/ics-01-2020-0016
  11. Cain, A. A., Edwards, M. E., & Still, J. D. (2018). An exploratory study of cyber hygiene behaviors and knowledge. Journal of Information Security and Applications, 42, 36–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jisa.2018.08.002
  12. Cengiz, A. B., Kalem, G., & Boluk, P. S. (2022). The effect of social media user behaviors on security and privacy threats. IEEE Access, 10, 57674–57684. https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2022.3177652
  13. Çiftçi, S., Sağlam, A., Sağlam, H. (2021). Internetin bilinçli kullanımı ve güvenli internet kullanımında öğretmen ve okul yöneticilerinin rolleri. Social Sciences Studies Journal, 7(87), 3915–3926. https://doi.org/10.26449/sssj.3407
  14. Clim, A., Toma, A., Zota, R. D., & Constantinescu, R. (2022). The need for cybersecurity in industrial revolution and smart cities. Sensors, 23(1), 120. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23010120
  15. Concepcion, N. J. D. (2024). An assessment of cybersecurity awareness among academic employees at quirino state university: promoting cyber hygiene. Deleted Journal, 20(7s), 769–775. https://doi.org/10.52783/jes.3445
  16. Çubukcu, A., & Bayzan, Ş. (2013). Türkiye’de dijital vatandaşlık algısı ve bu algıyı internetin bilinçli, güvenli ve etkin kullanımı ile artırma yöntemleri. Middle Eastern & African Journal of Education Research, 5, 148-174. Retrieved from https://www.academia.edu/download/56731022/12_cubukcu_and_bayzan.pdf
  17. Dambra, S., Bilge, L., & Balzarotti, D. (2022). A comparison of systemic and systematic risks of malware encounters in consumer and enterprise environments. ACM Transactions on Privacy and Security, 26(2), 1–30. https://doi.org/10.1145/3565362
  18. Derkachenko, Y. A., & Dzyuba, T. M. (2021). Ensuring the cyber resistance of Ukraine in modern conditions: digital skills and competencies. Zv’âzok, 151(3). https://doi.org/10.31673/2412-9070.2021.031216
  19. Dipak, M. H. (2023). Cyber smart teacher: A conceptual study. International Journal for Multidisciplinary Research, 5(6). https://doi.org/10.36948/ijfmr.2023.v05i06.10253
  20. Doğan, O. (2023). Examining the digital competence levels of faculty members: research on tourism academicians. Journal of Tourism Intelligence and Smartness, 6(2), 98–106. https://doi.org/10.58636/jtis.1341973
  21. ENISA, (2016). Review of Cyber Hygiene practices, European Union Agency For Network and Information Security
  22. Fikry, A., Hamzah, M. I., Hussein, Z., Abdul, A. J., & Bakar, K. a. A. (2024). Defining the beauty of cyber hygiene: A retrospective look. IEEE Engineering Management Review, 52(2), 174–180. https://doi.org/10.1109/emr.2024.3361023
  23. Floridi, L. (2020). The fight for digital sovereignty: what it is, and why it matters, especially for the EU. Philosophy & Technology, 33(3), 369–378. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13347-020-00423-6
  24. Fraenkel, J. R., & Wallen, N. E. (2006). How to design and evaluate research in education (6th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
  25. Garcia, A. B., & Bongo, S. M. C. (2022). A Cyber Security Cognizance among College Teachers and Students in Embracing Online Education. IEEE, 116–119. https://doi.org/10.1109/icim56520.2022.00028
  26. Górka, M. (2022). Cybersecurity culture in the public and private sector area in the Central European region. Nowa Polityka Wschodnia, 35(1), 51–71. https://doi.org/10.15804/npw20223503
  27. Grosul, V., & Usova, M. (2021). Digital transformation as a source of new risks for the enterprise. InterConf, 6–11. https://doi.org/10.51582/interconf.21-22.11.2021.001
  28. Guo, L. (2023). A brief introduction to the art of communication in class management for primary school class teachers. International Journal of Education and Humanities, 10(1), 43–46. https://doi.org/10.54097/ijeh.v10i1.10918
  29. Gupta, B. B., & Agrawal, D. P. (2021). Security, privacy and forensics in the enterprise information systems. Enterprise Information Systems, 15(4), 445–447. https://doi.org/10.1080/17517575.2020.1791364
  30. Gürbüz, B. (2018). İstatistik (Evren ve Örneklem). Ankara Universitesi Açık Ders Malzemeleri Havuzu. Retrieved from https://acikders.ankara.edu.tr/pluginfile.php/105487/mod_resource/content/1/ders%209%20evren%20ve%20orneklem%202.pdf
  31. Hernandez-Ramos, J. L., Geneiatakis, D., Kounelis, I., Steri, G., & Fovino, I. N. (2020). Toward a data-driven society: A technological perspective on the development of cybersecurity and data-protection policies. IEEE Security & Privacy, 18(1), 28–38. https://doi.org/10.1109/msec.2019.2939728
  32. Hijji, M., & Alam, G. (2021). A multivocal literature review on growing social engineering based cyber-attacks/threats during the covid-19 pandemic: Challenges and prospective solutions. IEEE Access, 9, 7152–7169. https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2020.3048839
  33. Hong, W. C. H., Chi, C., Liu, J., Zhang, Y., Lei, V. N., & Xu, X. (2022). The influence of social education level on cybersecurity awareness and behaviour: a comparative study of university students and working graduates. Education and Information Technologies, 28(1), 439–470. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-022-11121-5
  34. Iakovleva, A. V. (2023). Problems of legal support of the cyber hygiene institute. Courier of Kutafin Moscow State Law University (MSAL), 2, 62–70. https://doi.org/10.17803/2311-5998.2023.102.2.062-070
  35. Ibrahim, M. (2021). The awareness of cyber security in distance learning. Scientific Journal of King Faisal University Humanities and Management Sciences, 22(2), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.37575/h/edu/0089
  36. Kadena, E., & Gupi, M. (2021). Human factors in cybersecurity. Security Science Journal, 2(2), 51–64. https://doi.org/10.37458/ssj.2.2.3
  37. Kalhoro, S., Rehman, M., Ponnusamy, V., & Shaikh, F. B. (2021). Extracting key factors of cyber hygiene behaviour among software engineers: A systematic literature review. IEEE Access, 9, 99339–99363. https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2021.3097144
  38. Karacı, A., Akyüz, H. B., & Bilgici, G. (2017). Üniversite öğrencilerinin siber güvenlik davranışlarının incelenmesi. Kastamonu Üniversitesi Kastamonu Eğitim Dergisi, 25(6), 2079–2094. https://doi.org/10.24106/kefdergi.351517
  39. Karagöz, Y. (2017). SPSS ve AMOS uygulamalı nitel-nicel-karma bilimsel araştırma yöntemleri ve yayın etiği. Ankara: Nobel Akademik Yayıncılık.
  40. Karasar, N. (1998). Araştırmalarda rapor hazırlama yöntemi. Ankara: Pars Matbaacılık Sanayi.
  41. Karayel, T., & Akbıyık, A. (2024). Managing cyber security risks and cyber hygiene in organizations. In Advances in electronic commerce (AEC) book series/Advances in electronic commerce series (pp. 205–226). https://doi.org/10.4018/979-8-3373-0086-3.ch010
  42. Karayel, T., Aktaş, B., & Akbıyık, A. (2020). Kullanıcıların bilgisayar güvenliği davranışını i̇nceleme: Siber hijyen [Conference presentation]. In 7. Uluslararası Yönetim Bilişim Sistemleri Konferansı “Sağlık Bilişimi ve Analitiği”. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348182462_KULLANICILARIN_BILGISAYAR_GUVENLIGI_DAVRANISINI_INCELEME_SIBER_HIJYEN
  43. Kemp, S., (2024). Digital 2024 Global Overview Report. We are Social. Retrieved from https://wearesocial.com/uk/blog/2024/01/digital-2024-5-billion-social-media-users/
  44. Khalin, V. G., & Chernova, G. V. (2023). Digitalization and cyber risks. Administrative Consulting, 7, 28–41. https://doi.org/10.22394/1726-1139-2023-7-28-41
  45. Khan, N. F., Ikram, N., & Saleem, S. (2023). Effects of socioeconomic and digital inequalities on cybersecurity in a developing country. Security Journal, 37(2), 214–244. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41284-023-00375-4
  46. Kılıç, S. (2013). Örnekleme yöntemleri. Journal of Mood Disorders, 3(1), 44-46. https://doi.org/10.5455/jmood.20130325011730
  47. Kioskli, K., Fotis, T., Nifakos, S., & Mouratidis, H. (2023). The importance of conceptualising the Human-Centric approach in maintaining and promoting Cybersecurity-Hygiene in healthcare 4.0. Applied Sciences, 13(6), 3410. https://doi.org/10.3390/app13063410
  48. Kiss, J.-. F., Bradea, A., Pop, C. F., Pop, R., & Hanga, C. (2023). Educatıonal vulnerability in urban and rural environments: Differences noted by teachers. ICERI Proceedings, 1, 4273–4279. https://doi.org/10.21125/iceri.2023.1072
  49. Klein, G., & Zwilling, M. (2023). The weakest link: employee cyber-defense behaviors while working from home. Journal of Computer Information Systems, 64(3), 408–422. https://doi.org/10.1080/08874417.2023.2221200
  50. Köksal, D., & Canlı, S. (2024). Öğretmenlerin dijital yeterliliklerinin i̇ncelenmesi. Bilim Eğitim Sanat Ve Teknoloji Dergisi (BEST Dergi), 8(1), 1–21. https://doi.org/10.46328/bestdergi.102
  51. Koshy, N. R. (2022). Need for cybersecurity awareness in rural communities: A Socio-Legal Perspective. International Journal of Advanced Research in Science Communication and Technology, 233–237. https://doi.org/10.48175/ijarsct-7786
  52. Kryukova, E. S., Malofeev, V. A., & Parashchuk, I. B. (2021). Questions of cyber hygiene for users and operators of the automated management system of the electronic library. H&ES Research, 13(2), 66–73. https://doi.org/10.36724/2409-5419-2021-13-2-66-73
  53. Kumar, A. P. R. (2023). A review article on cyber security. Indian Scientific Journal of Research in Engineering and Management, 07(08). https://doi.org/10.55041/ijsrem25428
  54. Kweon, E., Lee, H., Chai, S., & Yoo, K. (2019). The utility of information security training and education on cybersecurity incidents: An empirical evidence. Information Systems Frontiers, 23(2), 361–373. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10796-019-09977-z
  55. Lee, C. S., & Kim, D. (2022). Pathways to cybersecurity awareness and protection behaviors in South Korea. Journal of Computer Information Systems, 63(1), 94–106. https://doi.org/10.1080/08874417.2022.2031347
  56. Maennel, K., Mäses, S., & Maennel, O. (2018). Cyber Hygiene: the big picture. In Lecture notes in computer science (pp. 291–305). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-03638-6_18
  57. Malatji, M. (2022). Industrial control systems cybersecurity: Back to basic cyber hygiene practices. 2021 International Conference on Electrical, Computer and Energy Technologies (ICECET), 10, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1109/icecet55527.2022.9872810
  58. Markelova, E. B., & Popkov, G. V. (2022). Home computer security. Interexpo GEO-Siberia, 6, 170–178. https://doi.org/10.33764/2618-981x-2022-6-170-178
  59. Marttila, E., Koivula, A., & Räsänen, P. (2021). Cybercrime victimization and problematic social media use: findings from a nationally representative panel study. American Journal of Criminal Justice, 46(6), 862–881. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12103-021-09665-2
  60. McCrohan, K. F., Engel, K., & Harvey, J. W. (2010b). Influence of awareness and training on cyber security. Journal of Internet Commerce, 9(1), 23–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/15332861.2010.487415
  61. McGill, T., & Thompson, N. (2021). Exploring potential gender differences in information security and privacy. Information & Computer Security/Information and Computer Security, 29(5), 850–865. https://doi.org/10.1108/ics-07-2020-0125
  62. MEB. (2024). Milli Eğitim Bakanlığı Öğretmen İstatistikleri. Retrieved from https://istatistik.meb.gov.tr/OgretmenSayisi/Arsiv
  63. Mednikarov, B., Tsonev, Y., Nikolov, B., & Lazarov, A. (2023). Characteristics and components of the cyber hygiene as a subclass of cyber security in military environment and educational issues. Strategies for Policy in Science and Education-Strategii Na Obrazovatelnata I Nauchnata Politika, 31(2), 154–169. https://doi.org/10.53656/str2023-2-3-cha
  64. Mersinas, K., & Bada, M. (2024). Behavior change approaches for cyber security and the need for ethics. In Springer proceedings in complexity (pp. 107–129). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-6974-6_7
  65. Mishra, A., Alzoubi, Y. I., Gill, A. Q., & Anwar, M. J. (2022). Cybersecurity enterprises policies: A comparative study. Sensors, 22(2), 538. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22020538
  66. Moser, C. (2022). Kota Örneklemesi. The SAGE encyclopedia of research design. https://doi.org/10.4135/9780857020123.n459
  67. Muammar, S., Shehada, D., & Mansoor, W. (2023). Digital risk assessment framework for individuals: Analysis and recommendations. IEEE Access, 11, 85561–85570. https://doi.org/10.1109/access.2023.3293062
  68. Nevmatulina, K., Nabiyev, Y., & Shakeyev, S. (2022). Digitalization of the economy in the context of globalization and its impact on socio-cultural changes in society. ECONOMIC Series of the Bulletin of the L N Gumilyov ENU, 2, 60–72. https://doi.org/10.32523/2789-4320-2022-2-60-72
  69. Nguyen, C., Jensen, M., & Day, E. (2021). Learning not to take the bait: a longitudinal examination of digital training methods and overlearning on phishing susceptibility. European Journal of Information Systems, 32(2), 238–262. https://doi.org/10.1080/0960085x.2021.1931494
  70. Nichols, T. P., & LeBlanc, R. J. (2020). Beyond apps: Digital literacies in a platform society. The Reading Teacher, 74(1), 103–109. https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.1926
  71. NUTS. (2023). Kalkınma Planlamasında Istatistiki Bölge Birimleri Sınıflaması. https://ka.gov.tr/sayfalar/kalkinma-planlamasinda-istatistiki-bolge-birimleri-siniflandirmasi--24
  72. Olivares-Rojas, J. C., Reyes-Archundia, E., Gnecchi, J. a. G., Moreno, I. M., Patiño, A. M., & Jacobo, J. C. (2023). Cyber hygiene in smart metering systems. Computación Y Sistemas, 27(2). https://doi.org/10.13053/cys-27-2-3894
  73. Pandey, P. (2021). Overview of cyber security. International Journal for Research in Applied Science and Engineering Technology, 9(9), 608–611. https://doi.org/10.22214/ijraset.2021.38022
  74. Prensky, M. (2001). Digital Natives, Digital Immigrants. From On the Horizon (MCB University Press, Vol. 9 No. 5).
  75. Putri, A., Sari, N., Fajrina, P., & Aisyah, S. (2024). Keamanan Online dalam Media Sosial: Pentingnya Perlindungan Data Pribadi di Era Digital (Studi Kasus Desa Pematang Jering). Jurnal Pengabdian Nasional (JPN) Indonesia, 6(1), 38–52. https://doi.org/10.35870/jpni.v6i1.1097
  76. Revak, I., & Gren, R. (2022). Digital Transformation: background, trends, risks, and threats. Social & Legal Studios, 5(2). https://doi.org/10.32518/2617-4162-2022-5-2-61-67
  77. Richardson, J. W., Martin, F., & Sauers, N. (2021). Systematic review of 15 years of research on digital citizenship: 2004–2019. Learning Media and Technology, 46(4), 498–514. https://doi.org/10.1080/17439884.2021.1941098
  78. Sadiku, M. N. O., Ashaolu, T. J., Ajayi-Majebi, A., & Musa, S. M. (2021). Digital safety. International Journal of Scientific Advances, 2(5). https://doi.org/10.51542/ijscia.v2i5.21
  79. Saeed, S. (2023). Digital workplaces and information security behavior of business employees: An empirical study of Saudi Arabia. Sustainability, 15(7), 6019. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15076019
  80. Saeed, S., Altamimi, S. A., Alkayyal, N. A., Alshehri, E., & Alabbad, D. A. (2023). Digital Transformation and Cybersecurity Challenges for businesses Resilience: Issues and recommendations. Sensors, 23(15), 6666. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23156666
  81. Şahin, İ. M. (2022). Digitalization and its impact on society. Social Science Development Journal, 7(32), 123–131. https://doi.org/10.31567/ssd.666
  82. Salem, M. A., & Sobaih, A. E. E. (2023). A Quadruple “E” approach for effective cyber-hygiene behaviour and attitude toward online learning among higher-education students in Saudi Arabia amid COVID-19 Pandemic. Electronics, 12(10), 2268. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics12102268
  83. Sánchez-Cruzado, C., Campión, R. S., & Sánchez-Compaña, M. T. (2021). Teacher digital literacy: The indisputable challenge after COVID-19. Sustainability, 13(4), 1858. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13041858
  84. Sapanca, H. F., & Kanbul, S. (2022). Risk management in digitalized educational environments: Teachers’ information security awareness levels. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.986561
  85. Sarker, I. H., Kayes, A. S. M., Badsha, S., Alqahtani, H., Watters, P., & Ng, A. (2020). Cybersecurity data science: an overview from machine learning perspective. Journal of Big Data, 7(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40537-020-00318-5
  86. Savaş, S., & Karataş, S. (2022). Cyber governance studies in ensuring cybersecurity: an overview of cybersecurity governance. International Cybersecurity Law Review, 3(1), 7–34. https://doi.org/10.1365/s43439-021-00045-4
  87. Sharma, P., Kumar, P., Rathore, P., & Kumar, N. (2023). A detailed review on cyber security. Journal of Nonlinear Analysis and Optimization, 13(01), 13–20. https://doi.org/10.36893/jnao.2022.v13i02.012-020
  88. Shostak, L., & Suriak, A. (2023). Features of ensuring the security of enterprise actıvıtıes in the conditions of digital transformation of the economy. Scientific Opinion Economics and Management, 3(83). https://doi.org/10.32782/2521-666x/2023-83-19
  89. Shrestha, N. (2021). Factor analysis as a tool for survey analysis. American Journal of Applied Mathematics and Statistics, 9(1), 4–11. https://doi.org/10.12691/ajams-9-1-2
  90. Shukla, M., Sarmah, S., & Tiwari, M. K. (2022). A multi-objective framework for the identification and optimisation of factors affecting cybersecurity in the Industry 4.0 supply chain. International Journal of Production Research, 61(15), 5266–5281. https://doi.org/10.1080/00207543.2022.2100840
  91. Sidenko, V. (2021). Challenges and risks of digital transformation: global and Ukrainian contexts. Economy of Ukraine, 64(5 (714)), 40–58. https://doi.org/10.15407/economyukr.2021.05.040
  92. Skarga-Bandurova, I., Kotsiuba, I., & Velasco, E. R. (2021). Cyber hygiene maturity assessment framework for smart grid scenarios. Frontiers in Computer Science, 3. https://doi.org/10.3389/fcomp.2021.614337
  93. Smit, J. R., Mostert, M., & Van Delden, J. J. M. (2022). Protecting privacy while optimizing the use of (Health) data: The importance of measures and safeguards. The American Journal of Bioethics, 22(7), 79–81. https://doi.org/10.1080/15265161.2022.2075973
  94. Smith, B. (2019). Behavioural cybersecurity: applications of personality psychology and computer science. Ergonomics, 63(1), 119–120. https://doi.org/10.1080/00140139.2019.1672925
  95. Soekamto, H., Nikolaeva, I., Abbood, A. a. A., Grachev, D., Kosov, M., Yumashev, A., Kostyrin, E., Lazareva, N., Kvitkovskaja, A., & Nikitina, N. (2022). Professional development of rural teachers based on digital literacy. Emerging Science Journal, 6(6), 1525–1540. https://doi.org/10.28991/esj-2022-06-06-019
  96. Steinmetz, K. F., Knight, T., & McCarthy, A. L. (2021). Organizational characteristics associated with vulnerability to social engineering deception: A qualitative analysis. Victims & Offenders, 17(3), 421–438. https://doi.org/10.1080/15564886.2021.1943092
  97. Strupczewski, G. (2024). Mitigating cyber risk in personal finance of the elderly. Insights into vulnerabilities, cyber hygiene and the role of personal cyber insurance. Cybersecurity and Law, 11(1), 281–298. https://doi.org/10.35467/cal/188460
  98. Tomczyk, U. (2019). What do teachers know about digital safety? Computers in the Schools, 36(3), 167–187. https://doi.org/10.1080/07380569.2019.1642728
  99. Ukwandu, E., Farah, M. a. B., Hindy, H., Brosset, D., Kavallieros, D., Atkinson, R., Tachtatzis, C., Bures, M., Andonovic, I., & Bellekens, X. (2020). A review of Cyber-Ranges and Test-Beds: Current and future trends. Sensors, 20(24), 7148. https://doi.org/10.3390/s20247148Van Schaik, P., Jansen, J., Onibokun, J., Camp, J., & Kusev, P. (2018). Security and privacy in online social networking: Risk perceptions and precautionary behaviour. Computers in Human Behavior, 78, 283–297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2017.10.007
  100. Vaughan, J. P., Victora, C., & Chowdhury, A. M. R. (2021). Data processing and analysis. In Oxford University Press eBooks (pp. 147–159). https://doi.org/10.1093/med/9780192848741.003.0011
  101. Vishwanath, A., Neo, L. S., Goh, P., Lee, S., Khader, M., Ong, G., & Chin, J. (2020). Cyber hygiene: The concept, its measure, and its initial tests. Decision Support Systems, 128, 113160. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dss.2019.113160
  102. Warner, K. S., & Wäger, M. (2018). Building dynamic capabilities for digital transformation: An ongoing process of strategic renewal. Long Range Planning, 52(3), 326–349. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lrp.2018.12.001
  103. Yeğen, C., Kirik, A. M., & Çetinkaya, A. (2023). Sustainability, digital security, and cyber hygiene during the covid-19 pandemic. New Normal in Digital Enterprises, 91–105. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-8618-5_5
  104. Yılmaz, E., Şahin, Y. L., & Akbulut, Y. (2015). Development of the digital data security awareness scale. AJIT-e Academic Journal of Information Technology, 23–40. https://doi.org/10.5824/1309-1581.2015.4.002.x
  105. Yu, R. P. (2020). How types of Facebook users approach news verification in the mobile media age: Insights from the dual-information-processing model. Mass Communication & Society, 24(2), 233–258. https://doi.org/10.1080/15205436.2020.1839104
  106. Zhuang, J., Wang, C., & Lambert, J. H. (2022). Machine learning and other information analyses for risk in social networks. Risk Analysis, 42(8), 1603–1
  107. Bıkmaz, Z. (2017). Sağlık yönetimi bölümü öğrencilerinin mobil güvenlik farkındalığı ve dijital veri güvenliği farkındalıklarının belirlenmesi. Uluslararası Yönetim Bilişim Sistemleri ve Bilgisayar Bilimleri Dergisi, 1(1), 22-30.