KaydedilenlerDerginizi ekleyin

Dergiler / Sosyal Güvence / 2026 / Sayı: 30

Emeklilikte Toplumsal Cinsiyet Açığı: Estonya, İsveç, Almanya Örnekleri

The Gender Pension Gap: The Cases Of Estonia, Sweden, Germany

Nursel Durmaz Bodur(PAMUKKALE ÜNİVERSİTESİ)0000-0001-7713-7214
Sayfa
2238–2272
Yayın Tarihi
2026-07-04
🏛️Bu makalenin bibliyografik verileri ve tam metin bağlantısı DergiPark üzerinden sağlanmıştır.
DergiPark Kaydı ↗
✨

Yapay Zeka Hızlı Bakış & Çıkarımlar

AI Insight
⚡ TL;DR(1 Cümlede Hızlı Çıkarım)

Bulgular, emeklilikte toplumsal cinsiyet açığının belirleyicilerinin emeklilik sistemlerinin yapısı ve işgücü piyasasının toplumsal cinsiyet eşitliğine duyarlılığı olduğunu göstermiştir.

📌 3 Maddede Bu Makale

🎯
Amaç & Hipotez:Bu çalışma, emeklilikte toplumsal cinsiyet açığını kavramsal ve karşılaştırmalı bir çerçevede incelemeyi amaçlamaktadır.
📊
Temel Bulgular & Veri:Kadınların erkeklere göre daha düşük ücretler karşılığında istihdam edilmeleri ve/veya kesintili kariyere sahip olmaları nedeniyle yaşam boyu kazançlarındaki farklılıklar emeklilik döneminde yeni eşitsizlikler üretmektedir.
💡
Sonuç & Katkı:Bulgular, emeklilikte toplumsal cinsiyet açığının belirleyicilerinin emeklilik sistemlerinin yapısı ve işgücü piyasasının toplumsal cinsiyet eşitliğine duyarlılığı olduğunu göstermiştir.
🔬Tür:Literatür & Derleme Çalışması
📍Kapsam:Genişletilmiş Akademik Örneklem
⚙️Değişkenler:Emeklilikte toplumsal cinsiyet açığı · refah rejimleri · toplumsal cinsiyet

Özet

Bu çalışma, emeklilikte toplumsal cinsiyet açığını kavramsal ve karşılaştırmalı bir çerçevede incelemeyi amaçlamaktadır. Kadın ve erkeklerin ortalama emeklilik aylıklarının karşılaştırılmasıyla hesaplanan emeklilikte toplumsal cinsiyet açığı, emeklilik dönemindeki cinsiyet eşitsizliğini gözler önüne serer. Kadınların erkeklere göre daha düşük ücretler karşılığında istihdam edilmeleri ve/veya kesintili kariyere sahip olmaları nedeniyle yaşam boyu kazançlarındaki farklılıklar emeklilik döneminde yeni eşitsizlikler üretmektedir. Bunun yanında tüm dünyada neoliberal politikaların hâkim kılınmasıyla özendirilen özel emeklilik planları, görece daha eşitlikçi olan kamusal sosyal güvenliğin sunduğu faydaları sunmamaktadır. Bu çalışmada, Avrupa Birliği ülkelerinde emeklilikte toplumsal cinsiyet açığının boyutları, nedenleri ile birlikte, ülkeler arası karşılaştırma yapılarak ortaya çıkartılmaya çalışılmıştır. Bu bağlamda, kavramsal bir araştırma yürütülmüş olup sistematik literatür taraması yaklaşımı benimsenmiş ve ikincil verilerden yararlanılmıştır. Araştırma sonucunda AB ülkeleri arasında farklı oranlarda emeklilikte toplumsal cinsiyet açığının olduğu görülmüştür. Bulgular, emeklilikte toplumsal cinsiyet açığının belirleyicilerinin emeklilik sistemlerinin yapısı ve işgücü piyasasının toplumsal cinsiyet eşitliğine duyarlılığı olduğunu göstermiştir. Tanımlanmış katkı esaslı modellerin tanımlanmış fayda esaslı modellere göre daha fazla emeklilikte toplumsal cinsiyet açığı potansiyeli taşıdığı ve emeklilik reformlarının etkisiyle görünür kılınacağı sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. Çalışmada, farklı refah rejimlerini temsil eden Estonya, İsveç ve Almanya’da emeklilikte toplumsal cinsiyet açığı incelenmiş ve ülkelerin benimsediği refah rejiminin emeklilikte toplumsal cinsiyet açığı üzerinde belirgin bir etkisinin olduğu görülmüştür. Refah rejimlerinin kadını konumlandırma biçimine göre emeklilikte toplumsal cinsiyet açığının değiştiği; bu bağlamda sosyal demokrat refah rejimlerinde ve post-komünist refah rejimlerinde emeklilikte toplumsal cinsiyet açığının korporatist-muhafazakâr refah rejimlerine göre daha düşük düzeyde olduğu görülmüştür. Bunun yanı sıra garanti emeklilik ve bakım kredisi gibi uygulamaların emeklilikte toplumsal cinsiyet açığını azaltmada etkili olabileceği ortaya çıkmıştır.

Abstract

This study aims to examine the gender pension gap within a conceptual and comparative framework. The gender pension gap, calculated by comparing the average monthly retirement benefits of women and men, highlights gender inequality during the retirement period. Differences in lifetime earnings due to women's lower wages and interrupted careers create new inequalities in retirement. Furthermore, private pension plans promoted by the global dominance of neoliberal policies do not provide the benefits offered by public social security, which is relatively more equitable. This study attempts to reveal the dimensions and causes of the gender pension gap in European Union countries through a comparative analysis. In this context, a conceptual research was conducted using a systematic literature review approach, and comparisons were made between countries using secondary data. The research revealed that there are varying rates of gender pension gap among EU countries. The findings indicate that the determinants of the gender pension gap are the structure of pension systems and gender equality in the labor market. The study found that defined-contribution models have a greater potential for gender pension gap compared to defined-benefit models, and that these gaps will become more apparent as a result of pension reforms. This study examined the gender pension gap in Estonia, Sweden, and Germany—countries representing different welfare regimes—and found that the welfare regime adopted by each country has a significant impact on the gender pension gap. The gender pension gap varies depending on how welfare regimes position women; in this context, it was observed that the gender gap in retirement is lower in social democratic and post-communist welfare regimes compared to corporatist-conservative welfare regimes. Furthermore, it has been found that policies such as guaranteed pensions and care credits may be effective in reducing the gender pension gap.

🔖

Bu Makaleye Atıf Yap

Bodur, N. D. (2026). Emeklilikte Toplumsal Cinsiyet Açığı: Estonya, İsveç, Almanya Örnekleri. Sosyal Güvence, Sayı: 30, 2238–2272. https://doi.org/10.21441/sosyalguvence.1933615

📄 Tam Metin PDF Okuyucu

📄

PDF görüntüleyici hazırlanıyor...

Kaynakça (88)

  1. Abatemarco, A., & Russolillo. M. (2022). The dynamics of the gender gap at retirement in Italy: Evidence from SHARE. Italian Economic Journal, 9, 445-473.
  2. Aitken, W. H. (1996). Problem-solving approach to pension funding and valuation. Actex Publications.
  3. Bardasi, E., & Jenkins, S. P. (2002). Income in later life: Work history matters, Bristol: The Policy Press.
  4. Bettio, F., Tinios, P., & Betti, G. (2013). The gender gap in pensions in the EU. Luxembourg: European Commission Publications Office.
  5. Bosch, K. (2024). The gender pension gap, past gender labour market inequalities and pension systems in the EU. REPORT 13001, Federal Planning Bureau, https://www.plan.be/sites/default/files/documents/REP_13001_EN.pdf (10.01.2026)
  6. Buchholz, S., Rinklake, A. & Blossfeld, H.P. (2013). Reversing early retirement in Germany. A longitudinal analysis of the effects of recent pension reforms on the timing of the transition to retirement and on pension ıncome. Comp. Popul. Stud. 38, 881–906.
  7. Bulut, R. (2015). Rusya Federasyonu’nda çarlık döneminden günümüze kadın işgücü istihdamı ve ekonomiye katkısı, içinde Türkiye’de ve dünyada kadın araştırmaları. G. Ağrıdağ (Ed.). Adana: Çukurova Üniversitesi Basımevi, 446-452.
  8. Butts, L. (2019) A life-long culmination of inequalities: Mechanisms behind the gender pension gap. https://psj.lse.ac.uk/articles/91/files/submission/proof/91-1-194-1-10-20200529.pdf (28.03.2026)
  9. Charness, G., & Gneezy, U. (2012). Strong evidence for gender differences in risk taking. Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 83(1), 50- 58.
  10. Chhaochharia, V., S. Ghosh, A. Niessen-Ruenzi & C. Schneider (2021). Public Child Care Provision and the Motherhood Penalty, Working Paper.
  11. Clark, R. L., & Pitts, M. M. (1999). Faculty choice of a pension plan: DB versus DC, Industrial Relations: A Journal of Economy and Society, 38(1), 18-45.
  12. Clark, G. L., & Strauss, K. (2008). Individual pension-related risk propensities: The effects of socio-demographic characteristics and a spousal pension entitlement on risk attitudes. Aging and Society, 28(6), 847–874.
  13. Cribb, J., Karjalainen, H., & O’Brien, L. (2023). The gender gap in pension saving. London: Institute for Fiscal Studies.
  14. DeStatis (2026a). Statutory pension insurance, https://www.destatis.de/EN/Themes/Labour/Labour-Market/Quality Employment/Dimension4/4_7_StatutorPensionInsurance.html (20.01.2026)
  15. DeStatis (2026b). Recipients of parental allowance by period of birth: Germany, years, sex. https://www-genesis.destatis.de/datenbank/online/statistic/22922/table/22922-0001 (23.01.2026)
  16. DeStatis (2026c). Average monthly pension payments (statutory pension insurance): Germany, reference date, type of pension, sex. https://www-genesis.destatis.de/datenbank/online/statistic/22611/table/22611-0002/search/s/cGVuc2lvbg%3D%3D (23.01.2026)
  17. Durmaz-Bodur, N. (2020). Türkiye refah rejiminde kadın, Ankara: Siyasal Kitabevi.
  18. Durmaz-Bodur, N., Dudu, S., Bozkuş, S. C., & Elveren, A. Y. (2023). Gender differences in risk aversion: Evidence from private pension system in Türkiye, Women’s Studies International Forum, 101.
  19. Ebbinghaus, B. (2021). Inequalities and poverty risks in old age across Europe: The double-edged income effect of pension systems. Social Policy & Administration, 55(3), 440-455.
  20. Edwards, A. C. (2002). Gender effects of social security reform in Chile. World Bank Economic Review, 16(3), 321-343.
  21. Elveren, A. Y., & Hsu, S. (2007). Gender Gaps in the Individual Pension System in Türkiye, Working Paper No: 2007-06.
  22. Elveren, A. Y. (2008a). Social security reform in Türkiye: A critical perspective. Review of Radical Political Economics, 40(2), 212-232.
  23. Elveren, A. Y. (2008b). Assessing gender inequality in the Turkish pension system. International Social Security Review, 61(2), 39–58.
  24. Elveren, A. Y., (2015). Türkiye’de Sosyal Güvenlik Sisteminin Toplumsal Cinsiyet Eşitliği Açısından Bir Değerlendirmesi, içinde 2000’ler Türkiye’sinde Sosyal Politika ve Toplumsal Cinsiyet. S. Dedeoğlu & A. Y. Elveren (Eds.). Ankara: İmge Yayınevi, 63-91.
  25. Esping-Andersen, G. (1990). Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism, Oxford: Polity Press.
  26. EUROSTAT (2025a). Gender pension average gap by age group, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/ilc_pnp13__custom_19613949/default/table (10.01.2026)
  27. EUROSTAT (2025b). Gender coverage rate in pension by age group, https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/databrowser/view/ilc_pnp14__custom_19613847/default/table (10.01.2026)
  28. Evandrou, M., & Glaser, K. (2004). Family, work and quality of life: changing economic and social roles through the lifecourse. Ageing Soc, 24, 771-791.
  29. Fenger, M. (2007). Welfare regimes in Central and Eastern Europe: Incorporating post-communist countries in a welfare regime typology. Contemporary Issues and Ideas in Social Sciences, 3(2), 1-30.
  30. Ferrara M. (2000). Reconstructing the Welfare State in Southern Europe. içinde The Survival of the European Welfare State. S. Kuhnle(Ed.). London: Routledge, 166-181.
  31. Finch, N. (2013). Why are women more likely than men to extend paid work? The impact of work-family life history. Eur. J. Ageing 11, 31–39.
  32. Flory, J. (2011). The Gender Pension Gap Developing an Indicator Measuring Fair Income Opportunities for Women and Men, Federal German Ministry for Family Affairs, Senior Citizens, Women and Youth, https://www.bmbfsfj.bund.de/resource/blob/93948/6c86b9fac3b84af1ea9c7f3a13e9f0ab/gender-pension-gap-englisch-data.pdf (12.02.2026)
  33. Frericks P., Maier R., & de Graaf W. (2006). Shifting the Pension Mix: Consequences for Dutch and Danish Women, Social Policy & Administration, 40 (5), 475-492.
  34. Fultz, E. (2011). Pension Crediting for Caregivers: Policies in Finland, France, Germany, Sweden, the United Kingdom, Canada, and Japan. Washington, DC: Institute for Women’s Policy Research.
  35. Gibson, R., Michayluk, D., & Venter, G. V. (2013). Financial risk tolerance: An analysis of unexplored factors. Financial Services Review, 22(1), 23-50.
  36. Giménez, D. M. (2005). Gender, pensions and social citizenship in Latin America. United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC).
  37. GOV.UK (2025). Gender Pensions Gap in Private Pensions: 2020 to 2022, https://www.gov.uk/government/statistics/gender-pensions-gap-in-private-pensions-2020-to-2022/gender-pensions-gap-in-private-pensions-2020-to-2022 (25.07.2025)
  38. Grable, J. E., & Lytton, R. H. (1998). Investor risk tolerance: Testing the efficacy of demographics as differentiating and classifying factors. Financial Counselling and Planning, 9, 61-73.
  39. Hammerschmid, A., & Rowold. C. (2019). Gender pension gaps in Europe are more explicitly associated with labor markets than with pension systems. DIW Weekly Report, 9(25), 203–211.
  40. Hershey, D. A., Henkens, K., & Dalen, H. (2010). What drives retirement income worries in Europe? A multilevel analysis. European Journal of Ageing, 7(4), 301-311.
  41. Hochfellner, D., & Burkert, C. (2013). Employment in retirement. Continuation of a working career or essential additional income?. Z Gerontol Geriatr, 46, 242-250.
  42. Hofäcker, D., & Naumann, E. (2015). The emerging trend of work beyond retirement age in Germany. Z Gerontol Geriatr, 48, 473-479.
  43. Joubert, C., & Todd, P. E. (2024). Gender pension gaps in a private retirement accounts system: A dynamic model of household labor supply and savings. Journal of Econometrics, 243(1), doi: 10.1016/j.jeconom.2022.08.005
  44. König, S., and Lindquist, G. S. (2016). Sweden: steeply rising older workers’ employment rates in a late-exit country, içinde Delaying Retirement. D. Hofäcker, M. Hess, & S. König (Eds.), London: Palgrave Macmillan, 315–335.
  45. König, S, Johansson B. E. A., Bolin, K. (2019). Invisible Scarsor Open Wounds? The Role of Mid-career Income for the Gender Pension Gap in Sweden. Front. Sociol. 4, 84, doi:10.3389/fsoc.2019.00084
  46. Leibfried, S. (1993). Towards a European Welfare State. içinde New Perspectives on the Welfare State in Europe. C. Jones (Ed.). London: Routledge Press, 133–156.
  47. Leppik, L. & Võrk, A. (2006). Pension reform in Estonia, içinde Pension Reform in the Baltic States. Fultz, E. (Ed.). Budapest: International Labour Office.
  48. Lewis, J. (2009), Work‐family balance, gender and policy, Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
  49. Lindquist, G. S., & Wadensjö E. (2014). Social security and pension income in Sweden, içinde Social security and pension reform international perspectives, Marek Szczepański. John A. Turner (Eds.). Published by W.E. Upjohn Institute.
  50. Meriküll, J., & Tverdostup, M. (2023). The gap that survived the transition: The gender wage gap over three decades in Estonia. Economic Systems, 47(no. 3), 101127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecosys.2023.101127
  51. Meriküll, J., Kukk, M., & Rõõm, T. (2021). What explains the gender gap in wealth? Evidence from administrative data. Review of the Economics of the Household, 19(2), 501-547. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11150-020-09522-x
  52. Möhring, K. (2015). Employment histories and pension incomes in Europe: A multilevel analysis of the role of institutional factors. European Sociological Review, 31(6), 711-728.
  53. Natali, D., & Stamati, F. (2013). Reforming Pensions in Europe: A Comparative Country Analysis. Brussels: ETUI.
  54. Neels, K., Jeroen Van Bavel, & Jonas Wood. (2018). The educational gradient of retirement timing and the role of family, employment and pension contexts. European Journal of Population, 34(4), 495–529.
  55. Niessen-Ruenzi, A., & Schneider, C. (2022). The Gender Pension Gap in Germany- Reasons and Remedies, CESifo Forum, ISSN 2190-717X, ifo Institut-Leibniz-Institut für Wirtschaftsforschung an der Universität München, München, 23(02), 20-24.
  56. OECD (2008) Private Pension Outlook 2008. Paris: OECD Publishing. Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/pensions/private-pensions/42169565.pdf. (08.12.2024)
  57. OECD (2017). Pensions at a Glance 2017: OECD and G20 Indicators, OECD Publishing, Paris. https://doi.org/10.1787/pension_glance-2017-en.
  58. OECD (2024) Gender Wage Gap, https://www.oecd.org/en/data/indicators/gender-wage-gap.html (02.02.2026)
  59. OECD (2025a) Pensions at a Glance 2025: Germany. https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/pensions-at-a-glance-2025-country-notes_8a53ef12-en/germany_c480c8fa-en.html (18.01.2026)
  60. OECD (2025b) Employment Rate, https://data-explorer.oecd.org (02.02.2026)
  61. Palmer, E. (2002). Swedish pension reform: How did it evolve, and what does it mean for the future?, içinde Social Security Pension Reform in Europe. M. Feldstein & H. Siebert (Eds.). University of Chicago Press, 171-210.
  62. Pienta, A. (1999). Early childbearing patterns and women’s labor force behavior in later life. J. Women Aging, 11, 69–84. doi: 10.1300/J074v11n01_06
  63. Piirits, M., Soosaarb, O., & Staehr K. (2025). Gender gaps in contributions to tax-incentivised pension investment: Early experiences from post-transition Estonia. Post-Communist Economies. 37 (3), 203-222.
  64. Raymo, J. M., Warren, J. R., Sweeney, M. M., Hauser, R. M., & Ho, J. H. (2010). Later-life employment preferences and outcomes: the role of mid-life work experiences. Res. Aging. 32, 419–466. doi: 10.1177/0164027510361462
  65. Redmond, P., & McGuinness, S. (2019). The gender wage gap in Europe: Job preferences, gender convergence and distributional effects. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics. 81, 564–87.
  66. Regeringskansliet (2018). The Swedish pension system and pension projections until 2070. Stockholm. https://economy-finance.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2021-05/se_-_ar_2021_final_pension_fiche.pdf (28.03.2026)
  67. Saar, E., Täht, K., & Unt, M. (2011). Late careers and labor market exit to retirement, İçinde In Towards a normal stratification order: Actual and perceived social stratification on post-socialist Estonia. E. Saar (Ed.). Germany: Peter Lang Publisher House. 143-176.
  68. Sağlam, N. (2024). Sosyal güvenlik hukukunda gümüş çalişanlar ve esnek emeklilik: Federal Almanya Cumhuriyeti örneği üzerine bir inceleme ve Türkiye için gözlemler. Selçuk Üniversitesi Hukuk Fakültesi Dergisi, 32(4), 2381-2430.
  69. Soo¬saar, K., Leetmaa, R., & Võrk, A. (2021). Pension system in Estonia: Institutional development and future challenges. içinde OECD/European Commission, Pensions at a Glance: Europe 2021. Paris: OECD Publishing.
  70. SPC and DG EMPL (Social Protection Committee-European Commission/ Directorate- General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion). (2015). The 2015 pension adequacy report: Current and future income adequacy in old age in the EU, Luxembourg.
  71. SPC and DG EMPL (Social Protection Committee-European Commission/ Directorate- General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion). (2018). The 2018 pension adequacy report: Current and future income adequacy in old age in the EU, V. 1, Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union.
  72. SPC and DG EMPL (Social Protection Committee-European Commission/ Directorate- General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion). (2021). The 2021 pension adequacy report: Current and future income adequacy in old age in the EU, Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union.
  73. SPC and DG EMPL (Social Protection Committee-European Commission/ Directorate- General for Employment, Social Affairs and Inclusion). (2024). The 2024 pension adequacy report: Current and future income adequacy in old age in the EU, Luxembourg: Publications Office of the European Union.
  74. Stafford, M., Lacey, R., Murray, E., Carr, E., Fleischmann, M., Stansfeld, S., (2018). Work–family life course patterns and work participation in later life. Eur. J. Ageing. 16, 83-94. doi: 10.1007/s10433-018-0470-7
  75. Sunden, A. E., & Surette, B. J. (1998). Gender differences in the allocation of assets in retirement savings plans. The American Economic Review, 88(2), 207-211.
  76. Sundström, M. & Stafford F.P. (1992). Female Labour Force Participation, Fertility and Public Policy in Sweden, European Journal of Population, 8, 199-215.
  77. Sung, J., & Hanna, S. D. (1996). Factors related to risk tolerance. Financial Counselling and Planning, 7, 11-20.
  78. Swedish Pension Agency (2026). National public pension and other financial support, payments Translation guide for the Swedish Pension Agency’s statistical database. https://www.pensionsmyndigheten.se/other-languages/english-engelska/english-engelska/official-statistics-of-sweden (10.01.2026)
  79. Swedish Pensions Agency (?). Theoritical Gender Gaps in Pensions, Pensions Myndigheten.
  80. Unt, M., Kazjulja M. & Krönström, V. (2020). Estonia, içinde Extended working life policies, (Ed. A. N. Leime, M. Rašticová, C. Krekula, I. Madero-Cabib, J. Ogg, D. Street) Switzerland: Springer.
  81. Van den Bosch, K. (2024). The gender pension gap, past gender labour market inequalities and pension systems in the EU. Federal Planning Bureau.
  82. Veremchuk, A. (2020). Gender Gap in Pension Income: Cross-Country Analysis and Role of Gender Attitudes. Tartu: The University of Tartu FEBA.
  83. Voets, I. (2023) The Gender Pension Gap: Assessing the Interaction between Pension System Reform, Care Credits, and Gendered Old-Age Poverty in Sweden and The Netherlands, https://socio-hub.com (05.04.2026)
  84. Wahrendorf, M., & Siegrist, J. (2011). Working conditions in mid-life and participation in voluntary work after labour market exit, içinde The Individual and the Welfare State. (A. Börsch-Supan, M. Brandt, K. Hank, and Schröder M.(Ed.). Berlin Heidelberg: Springer, 179-188.
  85. Watson, J., & McNaughton, M. (2007). Gender differences in risk aversion and expected retirement benefits. Financial Analysts Journal, 63(4), 52–62.
  86. World Bank. (1994). Averting the old age crisis: Policies to protect the old and promote growth. Oxford University Press.
  87. Yabiku, S. T. (2000). Family history and pensions: the relationships between marriage, divorce, children, and private pension coverage. J. Aging Stud., 14, 293-312.
  88. Ziegelmeyer, M. & Julius N. (2013). Backing out of private pension provision: Lessons from Germany, Empirica, 40(3), 505-539.