Journals / Afet ve Risk Dergisi / 2026 / Sayı: 22

The Climate Crisis as a Slow-Onset Disaster: Environmental Collapse and Climate Refugees in the Sahel Region

Yavaş Gelişen Bir Afet Olarak İklim Krizi: Sahel Bölgesi’nde Çevresel Çöküş ve İklim Mültecileri

Zeynep Deniz Altınsoy(BİLECİK ŞEYH EDEBALİ ÜNİVERSİTESİ)0000-0002-0335-3181
Pages
—
Publication Date
2026-09-26
🏛️Bibliographic metadata and full text access for this article are provided via DergiPark.
DergiPark Record ↗
✨

AI Summary & Key Takeaways

AI Insight
⚡ TL;DR(Too Long; Didn't Read)

Furthermore, populations displaced by environmental degradation fall into an institutional void within the international refugee regime due to the 1951 Geneva Convention’s definitional limits, pushing them into the limbo of “survival migration.” Ultimately, the study emphasizes that climate-induced mobility in the Sahel is a multidimensional phenomenon intertwined with global inequalities and governance failures, arguing for proactive, climate justice-oriented policies aimed at reducing vulnerabilities rather than security-centric migration management.

📌 3 Key Takeaways

🎯
Objective & Hypothesis:This article examines the climate crisis in the Sahel Region as a slow-onset disaster producing cumulative effects over time, rather than sudden environmental shocks, within an international relations framework.
📊
Key Findings & Data:Findings demonstrate that climate change operates as a “threat multiplier,” intensifying existing ecological, economic, and governance vulnerabilities.
💡
Conclusion & Impact:Furthermore, populations displaced by environmental degradation fall into an institutional void within the international refugee regime due to the 1951 Geneva Convention’s definitional limits, pushing them into the limbo of “survival migration.” Ultimately, the study emphasizes that climate-induced mobility in the Sahel is a multidimensional phenomenon intertwined with global inequalities and governance failures, arguing for proactive, climate justice-oriented policies aimed at reducing vulnerabilities rather than security-centric migration management.
🔬Design:Araştırma Makalesi
📍Scope:Comprehensive Sample
⚙️Variables:Göçün Güvenlikleştirilmesi · İklim Krizi · İklim Mültecileri

Abstract

This article examines the climate crisis in the Sahel Region as a slow-onset disaster producing cumulative effects over time, rather than sudden environmental shocks, within an international relations framework. Based on a qualitative case study design, the research treats the Sahel as the main case, with the Lake Chad Basin and Niger’s Agadez migration corridor as embedded subunits of analysis. Findings demonstrate that climate change operates as a “threat multiplier,” intensifying existing ecological, economic, and governance vulnerabilities. Analyses empirically reveal that hydrological uncertainties and surface area loss in the Lake Chad Basin erode traditional livelihoods, triggering ethno-political tensions and forced migration. Meanwhile, data from the Agadez case prove that the European Union’s border externalization strategies disrupt local mobility practices, criminalize migration routes, and deepen human vulnerabilities by strengthening human smuggling networks. Furthermore, populations displaced by environmental degradation fall into an institutional void within the international refugee regime due to the 1951 Geneva Convention’s definitional limits, pushing them into the limbo of “survival migration.” Ultimately, the study emphasizes that climate-induced mobility in the Sahel is a multidimensional phenomenon intertwined with global inequalities and governance failures, arguing for proactive, climate justice-oriented policies aimed at reducing vulnerabilities rather than security-centric migration management.

Özet

Bu makale, Sahel Bölgesi’nde iklim krizinin ani çevresel şoklardan ziyade zamana yayılan, kümülatif etkiler üreten yavaş gelişen bir afet biçiminde ortaya çıkışını uluslararası ilişkiler disiplini çerçevesinde incelemektedir. Nitel vaka çalışması desenine dayanan araştırma, Sahel’i ana vaka; Çad Gölü Havzası ve Nijer’deki Agadez göç koridorunu alt analiz birimleri olarak ele almaktadır. Bulgular, iklim değişikliğinin bölgedeki ekolojik, ekonomik ve yönetsel kırılganlıkları yoğunlaştıran bir “tehdit çarpanı” olarak işlediğini göstermektedir. Analizler, Çad Gölü Havzası’ndaki hidrolojik belirsizliklerin ve yüzey alanı kaybının, geleneksel geçim kaynaklarını erozyona uğratarak etno-politik gerilimleri ve zorunlu göçü tetiklediğini ampirik olarak ortaya koymaktadır. Agadez vakasından elde edilen veriler ise, Avrupa Birliği’nin sınır dışsallaştırma stratejilerinin yerel hareketlilik pratiklerini bozduğunu, göç yollarını kriminalize ettiğini ve insan kaçakçılığı ağlarını güçlendirerek insani kırılganlıkları derinleştirdiğini kanıtlamaktadır. Ayrıca, çevresel bozulma nedeniyle yerinden edilen nüfusların 1951 Cenevre Sözleşmesi’nin tanımsal sınırları sebebiyle uluslararası mülteci rejimi içinde kurumsal bir boşlukta kaldığı ve “hayatta kalma göçü” arafına itildiği tespit edilmiştir. Sonuç olarak çalışma, Sahel’deki iklim kaynaklı hareketliliğin küresel eşitsizlikler ve yönetişim zafiyetleriyle iç içe geçmiş çok boyutlu bir olgu olduğunu vurgulamakta; güvenlik merkezli yaklaşımlar yerine kırılganlıkların azaltılmasını hedefleyen iklim adaleti odaklı politikaların geliştirilmesi gerektiğini savunmaktadır.

🔖

Cite This Article

Babahanoğlu, V., Altınsoy, Z. D. (2026). The Climate Crisis as a Slow-Onset Disaster: Environmental Collapse and Climate Refugees in the Sahel Region. Afet ve Risk Dergisi, Sayı: 22. https://doi.org/10.35341/afet.1889893

📄 Full Text PDF Viewer

📄

PDF görüntüleyici hazırlanıyor...

References (91)

  1. Adaawen, S., Rademacher-Schulz, C., Schraven, B., Segadlo, N. (2019). Drought, migration, and conflict in sub-Saharan Africa: What are the links and policy options? (Research Report). German Development Institute / Deutsches Institut für Entwicklungspolitik (DIE).
  2. Adger, W. N. (2006). Vulnerability. Global Environmental Change, 16(3), 268-281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2006.02.006
  3. Aina, F., Ojo, J. S. (2025). (De)weaponizing climate-induced recruitment: Prospects of climate change adaptation as a non-kinetic counter-terrorism strategy in the Lake Chad Basin region. Global Society, 39(4), 446-469. https://doi.org/10.1080/13600826.2025.2459627
  4. Aleinikoff, T. A. (2024). Climate-induced displacement and the international protection of forced migrants. Social Research: An International Quarterly, 91(2), 421-444. https://doi.org/10.1353/sor.2024.a930749
  5. Andersson, R. (2016). Europe’s failed ‘fight’ against irregular migration: Ethnographic notes on a counterproductive industry. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 42(7), 1055-1075. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2016.1139446
  6. Ani, K. J., Uwizeyimana, D. E. (2020). Climate change and changing environmental insecurity in the Lake Chad region. Journal of African Union Studies, 9(2), 65-88. https://doi.org/10.31920/2050-4306/2020/9n2a4
  7. Apap, J. (2019). The concept of ‘climate refugee’: Towards a possible definition. European Parliamentary Research Service (EPRS).
  8. Atapattu, S. (2009). Climate change, human rights, and forced migration: Implications for international law. Wisconsin International Law Journal, 27(3), 607-636.
  9. Barnett, J., Adger, W. N. (2007). Climate change, human security and violent conflict. Political Geography, 26(6), 639-655. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.polgeo.2007.03.003
  10. Benjaminsen, T. A., Alinon, K., Buhaug, H., Buseth, J. T. (2012). Does climate change drive land-use conflicts in the Sahel? Journal of Peace Research, 49(1), 97-111. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343311427343
  11. Berlemann, M., Steinhardt, M. F. (2017). Climate change, natural disasters, and migration—A survey of the empirical evidence. CESifo Economic Studies, 63(4), 353-385. https://doi.org/10.1093/cesifo/ifx019
  12. Bettini, G. (2017). Where next? Climate change, migration, and the (bio)politics of adaptation. Global Policy, 8(S1), 33-40. https://doi.org/10.1111/1758-5899.12404
  13. Betts, A. (2013). Survival migration: Failed governance and the crisis of displacement. Cornell University Press.
  14. Bøås, M. (2021). EU migration management in the Sahel: Unintended consequences on the ground in Niger? Third World Quarterly, 42(1), 52-67. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2020.1784002
  15. Borderon, M., Sakdapolrak, P., Muttarak, R., Kebede, E., Pagogna, R., Sporer, E. (2019). Migration influenced by environmental change in Africa: A systematic review of empirical evidence. Demographic Research, 41, 491-544. https://doi.org/10.4054/DemRes.2019.41.18
  16. Bowen, G. A. (2009). Document analysis as a qualitative research method. Qualitative Research Journal, 9(2), 27-40. https://doi.org/10.3316/QRJ0902027
  17. Brachet, J. (2018). Manufacturing smugglers: From irregular to clandestine mobility in the Sahara. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 676(1), 16-35. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002716217744529
  18. Braun, V., Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77-101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
  19. Brottem, L. (2021). The growing complexity of farmer-herder conflict in West and Central Africa (Africa Security Brief No. 39). Africa Center for Strategic Studies.
  20. Brown, O., Crawford, A. (2009). Climate change and security in Africa: A study for the Nordic-African Foreign Ministers Meeting. International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD).
  21. Busby, J. W., Smith, T. G., White, K. L., Strange, S. M. (2013). Climate change and insecurity: Mapping vulnerability in Africa. International Security, 37(4), 132-172.
  22. Carlesi, C. (2022). Understanding the relationship between terrorism and climate change: The case of Boko Haram activities and the environmental degradation of the Lake Chad Basin (GTLA Winning Paper). IFTRIP.
  23. Casas-Cortes, M., Cobarrubias, S., Pickles, J. (2015). Riding routes and itinerant borders: Autonomy of migration and border externalization. Antipode, 47(4), 894-914. https://doi.org/10.1111/anti.12148
  24. Castles, S. (2002). Environmental change and forced migration: Making sense of the debate (Working Paper No. 70). UNHCR Evaluation and Policy Analysis Unit.
  25. Chahrazed, A. (2024). Climate change and climate migration issues in the African Sahel: Human rights are at stake. Journal of Political Orbits, 8(1), 31-48.
  26. Christensen, M. (2018). Slow violence in the Anthropocene: An interview with Rob Nixon on communication, media, and the environmental humanities. Environmental Communication, 12(1), 7-14. https://doi.org/10.1080/17524032.2017.1367178
  27. Cold-Ravnkilde, S. M., Nissen, C. (2020). Schizophrenic agendas in the EU's external actions in Mali. International Affairs, 96(4), 935-953. https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiaa053
  28. Cutter, S. L., Boruff, B. J., Shirley, W. L. (2003). Social vulnerability to environmental hazards. Social Science Quarterly, 84(2), 242-261. https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-6237.8402002
  29. Daoust, G., Selby, J. (2023). Understanding the politics of climate security policy discourse: The case of the Lake Chad Basin. Geopolitics, 28(3), 1285-1322. https://doi.org/10.1080/14650045.2021.2014821
  30. Davies, T. (2018). Toxic space and time: Slow violence, necropolitics, and petrochemical pollution. Annals of the American Association of Geographers, 108(6), 1537-1553. https://doi.org/10.1080/24694452.2018.1470924
  31. Denzin, N. K. (2012). Triangulation 2.0. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 6(2), 80-88. https://doi.org/10.1177/1558689812437186
  32. Drabo, A., Mbaye, L. M. (2011). Climate change, natural disasters and migration: An empirical analysis in developing countries (IZA Discussion Paper No. 5927). Institute for the Study of Labor (IZA).
  33. Eboreime, E., Anjorin, O., Obi-Jeff, C., Ojo, T. M., Hertelendy, A. (2025). From drought to displacement: Assessing the impacts of climate change on conflict and forced migration in West Africa’s Sahel Region. The Journal of Climate Change and Health, 23, 1-6. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joclim.2025.100448
  34. Flores, C. M. (2025). Climate justice across borders: Responding to ecocide and displacement. The British University in Egypt. BUE Scholar. https://buescholar.bue.edu.eg/cop30/9
  35. Flyvbjerg, B. (2006). Five misunderstandings about case-study research. Qualitative Inquiry, 12(2), 219-245. https://doi.org/10.1177/1077800405284363
  36. Fokeng, R. M., Bachofer, F., Sogno, P., Klein, I., Uereyen, S., Kuenzer, C. (2024). Surface water dynamics of Lake Chad Basin (Sahelian Africa) based on daily temporal resolution Earth observation time series. Journal of Hydroinformatics, 26(9), 2325-2346. https://doi.org/10.2166/hydro.2024.130
  37. Freedberg, J. (2022). The climate-conflict nexus in Africa: A conflict-sensitive approach (Policy Briefing No. 262). South African Institute of International Affairs. Frowd, P. M. (2018). Developmental borderwork and the International Organization for Migration. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 44(10), 1656-1672. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2017.1354046 Frowd, P. M. (2020). Producing the ‘transit’ migration state: International security intervention in Niger. Third World Quarterly, 41(2), 340-358. https://doi.org/10.1080/01436597.2019.1660633
  38. Füssel, H. M. (2007). Vulnerability: A generally applicable conceptual framework for climate change research. Global Environmental Change, 17(2), 155-167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2006.05.002
  39. Gao, H., Bohn, T. J., Podest, E., McDonald, K. C., Lettenmaier, D. P. (2011). On the causes of the shrinking of Lake Chad. Environmental Research Letters, 6(3), 034021. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-9326/6/3/034021
  40. Horváth, S., Schwab, R. (2023). The externalization of EU borders: The case of Agadez (PRIF Spotlight 4/23). Peace Research Institute Frankfurt. https://doi.org/10.48809/prifspot2304
  41. Hoye, J. M., Hednäs, G., Rowland, M., Sodhi, U., Kantorowicz, J. (2024). On the term “environmental refugee”: Normative assumptions and empirical realities. Political Studies Review, 22(3), 667-672. https://doi.org/10.1177/14789299241226614
  42. Hummel, D. (2015). Climate change, land degradation and migration in Mali and Senegal - some policy implications. Migration and Development, 5(2), 211-233. https://doi.org/10.1080/21632324.2015.1022972
  43. International Crisis Group. (2015). The central Sahel: A perfect sandstorm (Africa Report No. 227).
  44. Ismail, L. I. (2025). Climate change and national security in Africa: Insights from the Lake Chad Region. Nnamdi Azikiwe Journal of Political Science, 10(4), 1-11.
  45. Kaczan, D. J., Orgill-Meyer, J. (2020). The impact of climate change on migration: A synthesis of recent empirical insights. Climatic Change, 158, 281-300. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-019-02560-0
  46. Koubi, V., Spilker, G., Schaffer, L., Bernauer, T. (2016). Environmental stressors and migration: Evidence from Vietnam. World Development, 79, 197-210. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2015.11.016
  47. Lyammouri, R., Bozsogi, B. (2025). Floods in the Lake Chad Basin and the Sahel: The climate change-conflict nexus (Policy Brief No. PB-01/25). Policy Center for the New South.
  48. Mayer, B. (2016). The concept of climate migration: Advocacy and its prospects. Edward Elgar Publishing.
  49. Mbaye, A. A. (2020). Climate change, livelihoods, and conflict in the Sahel. Georgetown Journal of International Affairs, 21(1), 12-20.
  50. McAdam, J. (2012). Climate change, forced migration, and international law. Oxford University Press.
  51. McLeman, R., Smit, B. (2006). Migration as an adaptation to climate change. Climatic Change, 76, 31-53. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-005-9000-7
  52. Merriam, S. B., Tisdell, E. J. (2015). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. Jossey-Bass
  53. Molenaar, F. (2017). Irregular migration and human smuggling networks in Niger (Clingendael Report). Clingendael Institute.
  54. Molenaar, F., El Kamouni-Janssen, F. (2017). Turning the tide: The politics of irregular migration in the Sahel and Libya (CRU Report). Clingendael Institute.
  55. Moritz, M. (2010). Crop-livestock interactions in agricultural and pastoral systems in West Africa. Agriculture and Human Values, 27, 119-128. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10460-009-9203-z
  56. Nenger, J. A., Odimegwu, N. U., Nwankwo, C. N. (2024). The impact of climate change on forced migration in the Sahel: Human rights perspective (Nigeria as a case study). Canadian Social Science, 20(1), 23-31. http://dx.doi.org/10.3968/13313 Nett, K., Rüttinger, L. (2016). Insurgency, terrorism and organised crime in a warming climate: Analysing the links of the case study of the Lake Chad Basin. Adelphi.
  57. Nishimura, L. (2015). ‘Climate change migrants’: Impediments to a protection framework and the need to incorporate migration into climate change adaptation strategies. International Journal of Refugee Law, 27(1), 107-134. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijrl/eev002
  58. Nixon, R. (2009). Neoliberalism, slow violence, and the environmental picaresque. Modern Fiction Studies, 55(3), 443-467. https://doi.org/10.1353/mfs.0.1631
  59. Nixon, R. (2011). Slow violence and the environmentalism of the poor. Harvard University Press.
  60. Nkwe, S. (2025). Crossing borders: Climate change and the policy implications for regional security cooperation in Africa. International Journal of African Renaissance Studies - Multi-, Inter- and Transdisciplinarity, 20(2), 3-22. https://doi.org/10.1080/18186874.2025.2511643
  61. O’Lear, S. (2024). The slow violence of climate security. Geoforum, 155, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geoforum.2024.104078
  62. O’Sullivan, A., Omukuti, J., Ryder, S. S. (2023). Global surpluses of extraction and slow climate violence: A sociological framework. Sociological Inquiry, 93(2), 320-340. https://doi.org/10.1111/soin.12518
  63. Okpara, U. T., Stringer, L. C., Dougill, A. J. (2015). Conflicts about water in Lake Chad: Are environmental, vulnerability and security issues linked? Progress in Development Studies, 15(4), 308-325. https://doi.org/10.1177/1464993415592738
  64. Okpara, U. T., Stringer, L. C., Dougill, A. J. (2016). Lake drying and livelihood dynamics in Lake Chad: Unravelling the mechanisms, contexts and responses. Ambio, 45, 781-795. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13280-016-0805-6
  65. Okpara, U. T., Yunus, S. (2025). The nexus of climate and conflict in the Lake Chad Region: What we know, don’t know and need to know. Climatic Change, 178(185), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-025-04024-0
  66. Owonikoko, S. B., Momodu, J. A. (2020). Environmental degradation, livelihood, and the stability of Chad Basin Region. Small Wars ve Insurgencies, 31(6), 1295-1322. https://doi.org/10.1080/09592318.2020.1776092
  67. Oyekanmi, O. (2022). Climate change and environmental conflict in the Lake Chad region. Jurnal Administrasi Publik, 12(2), 270-279. https://doi.org/10.31289/jap.v12i2.8397
  68. Pain, R., Cahill, C. (2022). Critical political geographies of slow violence and resistance. EPC: Politics and Space, 40(2), 359-372. https://doi.org/10.1177/23996544221085753
  69. Pandey, S. (2025). Climate refugees and international law: Legal protection in the age of displacement. SSRN Electronic Journal. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.5347649
  70. Patton, M. Q. (1990). Qualitative evaluation and research methods. Sage Publications.
  71. Raineri, L. (2018). Human smuggling across Niger: State-sponsored protection rackets and contradictory security imperatives. African Affairs, 117(466), 165-186. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022278X17000520
  72. Raineri, L. (2022). Drought, desertification and displacement: Re-politicising the climate-conflict nexus in the Sahel (IAI Papers 22|04). Istituto Affari Internazionali.
  73. Raleigh, C. (2010). Political marginalization, climate change, and conflict in African Sahel states. International Studies Review, 12(1), 69-86.
  74. Raynaut, C. (2001). Societies and nature in the Sahel: ecological diversity and social dynamics. Global Environmental Change, 11(1), 9-18. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0959-3780(00)00041-8
  75. Rigaud, K. K., de Sherbinin, A., Jones, B., Bergmann, J., Clement, V., Ober, K., Schewe, J., Adamo, S. B., McCusker, B., Heuser, S., Midgley, A. (2018). Groundswell: Preparing for internal climate migration. The World Bank. https://doi.org/10.1596/29461
  76. Salehyan, I. (2008). From climate change to conflict? No consensus yet. Journal of Peace Research, 45(3), 315-326. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343308088812
  77. Scheffran, J., Ide, T., Schilling, J. (2014). Violent climate or climate of violence? Concepts and relations with focus on Kenya and Sudan. The International Journal of Human Rights, 18(3), 369-390. https://doi.org/10.1080/13642987.2014.914722
  78. Sim-Sarka, K. (2025). Contesting crisis narratives amidst climatic breakdown: Climate change, mobility, and state-centric approaches to migration. Frontiers in Sociology, 9, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fsoc.2024.1411683
  79. Smit, B., Wandel, J. (2006). Adaptation, adaptive capacity and vulnerability. Global Environmental Change, 16(3), 282-292. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2006.03.008
  80. Stambøl, E. M. (2019). The rise of crimefare Europe: Fighting migrant smuggling in West Africa. European Foreign Affairs Review, 24(3), 287-307. https://doi.org/10.54648/eerr2019026
  81. Tesfaye, B. (2022). Climate change and conflict in the Sahel (Discussion Paper Series on Managing Global Disorder No. 11). Council on Foreign Relations.
  82. Tiky, L., Ndiloseh, M. (2022). The paradox of climate resilience and elusive peace in the Lake Chad Basin: A case for an adaptive governance approach. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, 57, 1-13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cosust.2025.101523
  83. Trombetta, M. J. (2008). Environmental security and climate change: Analysing the discourse. Cambridge Review of International Affairs, 21(4), 585-602. https://doi.org/10.1080/09557570802452920
  84. Tubiana, J., Warin, C., Saeneen, G. (2018). Multilateral damage: The impact of EU migration policies on central Saharan routes (CRU Report). Clingendael Institute.
  85. Turner, B. L., Kasperson, R. E., Matson, P. A., McCarthy, J. J., Corell, R. W., Christensen, L.,. Schiller, A. (2003). A framework for vulnerability analysis in sustainability science. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 100(14), 8074-8079. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1231335100
  86. Vieira de Siqueira, E. C. (2024). Refugees, climate litigation in the global south and climate change: Facing the gap in the protection of climate refugees in international law. Anuario Mexicano de Derecho Internacional, 24, 37-65. https://doi.org/10.22201/iij.24487872e.2024.24.17289
  87. Willett, J. L. (2015). The slow violence of climate change in poor rural Kenyan communities: “Water is life. Water is everything.”. Contemporary Rural Social Work Journal, 7(1), 39-55. https://doi.org/10.61611/2165-4611.1074
  88. Wood, T. (2019). The role of free movement of persons agreements in addressing disaster displacement: A study of Africa. Platform on Disaster Displacement.
  89. Yamori, K., Goltz, J. D. (2021). Disasters without borders: The coronavirus pandemic, global climate change and the ascendancy of gradual onset disasters. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(6), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18063299
  90. Zardo, F. (2022). The EU Trust Fund for Africa: Geopolitical space making through migration policy instruments. Geopolitics, 27(2), 584-603. https://doi.org/10.1080/14650045.2020.1815712
  91. Turner, B. L., Kasperson, R. E., Matson, P. A., McCarthy, J. J., Corell, R. W., Christensen, L.,. Schiller, A. (2003). A framework for vulnerability analysis in sustainability science. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 100(14), 8074-8079. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1231335100