Calceus as a Tool of Propaganda: Footwear, Status, and Ideology in Roman Society

Abstract

This study examines the calceus, a type of closed leather boot worn exclusively by Roman citizens, as a material and visual indicator of social status in Roman society. Beyond its practical function, the calceus is examined within the theoretical frameworks of material culture, visual ideology, and symbolic power. A typological analysis of the patricius, senatorius, and equester types of calceus reveals that differences in form, fastening system, decoration, and quantity of material used directly reflect the hierarchical distinctions between patricians, senators, and the equestrian class. The study also emphasizes the role played by the calceus in the visual construction of Roman citizenship and elite identity. Iconographic data on statues and reliefs show that the calceus was used as a physical expression of authority, particularly in depictions of high-level religious and political figures such as the pontifex maximus. By addressing persistent terminological ambiguities, this study argues that the calceus functioned as an effective visual propaganda tool that naturalized and legitimized social hierarchy in Roman society.