SavedAdd your journal

Journals / Research on Education and Psychology / 2020 / Volume: 4 Issue: 2

Investigation of the Relationships between Metacognitive Functions and Subjective Well-Being and Depression, Anxiety and Stress Levels in Adult Individuals

Rojin Yazar(DİCLE ÜNİVERSİTESİ)0000-0003-3888-1037
Özlem Tolan(DİCLE ÜNİVERSİTESİ)0000-0002-8128-6498
Pages
—
Publication Date
2020-12-30
DOI
—
🏛️Bibliographic metadata and full text access for this article are provided via DergiPark.
DergiPark Record ↗
✨

AI Summary & Key Takeaways

AI Insight
⚡ TL;DR(Too Long; Didn't Read)

The analysis findings revealed that metacognitive functions, uncontrollability and danger, the need to control the thoughts, cognitive confidence, positive belief, and cognitive awareness levels were positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress variables.

📌 3 Key Takeaways

🎯
Objective & Hypothesis:Abstract The metacognitive functions significantly affect the levels of psychological symptoms such as depression, anxiety, stress in individuals.
📊
Key Findings & Data:Thus, it was considered that metacognitive traits also have a significant effect on the subjective well-being levels.
💡
Conclusion & Impact:The analysis findings revealed that metacognitive functions, uncontrollability and danger, the need to control the thoughts, cognitive confidence, positive belief, and cognitive awareness levels were positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress variables.
🔬Design:Survey & Empirical Study
📍Scope:Comprehensive Sample
⚙️Variables:Metacognition · Subjective well-being · Depression

Abstract

Abstract The metacognitive functions significantly affect the levels of psychological symptoms such as depression, anxiety, stress in individuals. Thus, it was considered that metacognitive traits also have a significant effect on the subjective well-being levels. In the present study, the correlations between metacognitive functions and depression, anxiety, stress and subjective well-being levels of adult individuals were analyzed. The study was conducted with 114 female and 137 male, a total of 251 adult individuals. The study data were collected with the Metacognitions Questionnaire (MCQ-30), Depression, Anxiety, Stress Inventory, Subjective Well-being Scale and a Personal Information Form. The study data were analyzed using Pearson Correlation Analysis and Hierarchical Regression method. The analysis findings revealed that metacognitive functions, uncontrollability and danger, the need to control the thoughts, cognitive confidence, positive belief, and cognitive awareness levels were positively associated with depression, anxiety, and stress variables. On the other hand, there were negative correlations between subjective well-being and positive beliefs, need to control thought, levels of uncontrollability and danger, cognitive confidence, uncontrollability of thoughts and danger. According to the hierarchical regression analysis made by creating models, sub-dimensions of metacognition predict depression, anxiety, stress and subjective well-being levels.

🔖

Cite This Article

Yazar, R., Tolan, Ö. (2020). Investigation of the Relationships between Metacognitive Functions and Subjective Well-Being and Depression, Anxiety and Stress Levels in Adult Individuals. Research on Education and Psychology, Volume: 4 Issue: 2. https://ajindex.com/articles/1537158

📄 Full Text PDF Viewer

📄

PDF görüntüleyici hazırlanıyor...

References (99)

  1. Åkerstedt, T., Kecklund, G., & Axelsson, J. (2007). Impaired sleep after bedtime stress and worries. Biological psychology, 76(3), 170-173.
  2. Akın, A., & Çetin, B. (2007). Depresyon, Anksiyete Stres Ölçeği (DASÖ): Geçerlik ve Güvenirlik Çalışması. [Depression, Anxiety and Stress Inventory. Validity and Reliability Study.] Kuram ve Uygulamada Eğitim Bilimleri Dergisi, [Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice], 7(1), 241-268.
  3. Antony, M. M., & Swinson, R. P. (2000). The shyness & social anxiety workbook: Proven techniques for overcoming your fears. USA:New Harbinger Publications.
  4. Aydın, K. B. (2010). Strategies for coping with stress as predictors of mental health. Journal of Human Sciences, 7(1), 534-548.
  5. Barahmand, U. (2009). Meta-cognitive profiles in anxiety disorders. Psychiatry Research, 169(3), 240-243. doi: 10.1016/j.psychres.2008.06.029
  6. Bartlett, A., Singh, R., & Hunter, R. (2017). Anxiety and Epigenetics. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, 145-166. doi: 10.1007/978-3-319-53889-1_8
  7. Beck, A., Emery, G., & Greenberg, R. (2005). Anxiety disorders and phobias. Cambridge, MA: Basic Books.
  8. Beiter, R., Nash, R., Mccrady, M., Rhoades, D., Linscomb, M., Clarahan, M., & Sammut, S. (2015). The prevalence and correlates of depression, anxiety, and stress in a sample of college students. Journal of Affective Disorders, 173, 90-96. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2014.10.054
  9. Bradburn, N. M. (1969). The structure of psychological Well Being. Chicago: Aldine.
  10. Bray, I., & Gunnell, D. (2006). Suicide rates, life satisfaction and happiness as markers for population mental health. Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology, 41(5), 333-337.
  11. Brett, C. M. C., Johns, L. C., Peters, E. P., & Mcguire, P. K. (2008). The role of metacognitive beliefs in determining the impact of anomalous experiences: a comparison of help-seeking and non-help-seeking groups of people experiencing psychotic-like anomalies. Psychological Medicine, 39(6), 939-950. doi: 10.1017/s0033291708004650
  12. Brown, A. L. (1980). Metacognitive development and reading. In R. J. Spiro, B. C. Bruce, & W. F. Brewer (Eds.), Theoretical issues in reading comprehension: Perspectives from cognitive psychology, linguistics, artificial intelligence, and education (pp. 453-481). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
  13. Brown, A. (1987). Metacognition, executive control, self-regulation, and other more mysterious mechanisms. In F. E. Weinert & R. H. Kluwe, (Eds.), Metacognition, motivation, and understanding (pp. 65-116). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
  14. Büyüköztürk, S., Çakmak, E. K., Akgün, O. E., Karadeniz, S., & Demirel, F. (2008). Bilimsel araştırma yöntemleri. Pegem Academy: Ankara. [Büyüköztürk, S., Çakmak, E. K.,
  15. Akgün, O. E., Karadeniz, S., & Demirel, F. (2008). Scientific research methods. Pegem Academy: Ankara ]
  16. Canbay C. (2018). Unipolar ve bipolar depresyon tanılı hastaların üstbilişsel süreçler ve başa çıkma biçimleri ilişkisinin araştırılması. (Tıpta Uzmanlık Tezi). YÖK Tez Merkezi. (501007) [Canbay C. (2018). Investigation of emotional schemas, metacognitive processes and coping strategies relationships between unipolar and bipolar depression. (Medical Specialty Thesis). YÖK Thesis Center. (501007)]
  17. Canbulat, N., & Çankaya, Z. C. (2014). Evli bireylerin öznel iyi olma düzeylerinin yordanması [Predicting Subjective Well-Being Levels Married Individuals]. Ege Eğitim Dergisi [Ege Journal of Education], 15(2), 556-576.
  18. Cartwright-Hatton, S., & Wells, A. (1997). Beliefs about Worry and Intrusions: The Meta-Cognitions Questionnaire and its Correlates. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 11(3), 279-296. doi: 10.1016/s0887-6185(97)00011-x
  19. Christensen, H., Griffiths, K. M., & Farrer, L. (2009). Adherence in Internet Interventions for Anxiety and Depression. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 11(2). doi: 10.2196/jmir.1194
  20. Clark, D. M., & Wells, A. (1995). A cognitive model of social phobia. In R. Heimberg, M. R. Liebowitz, D. A. Hope, & F. R. Schneier (Eds.), Social phobia: Diagnosis, assessment, and treatment (pp. 69-93). New York: Guilford Press.
  21. Corcoran, K. M., & Segal, Z. V. (2008). Metacognition in depressive and anxiety disorders: current directions. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 1(1), 33-44. Cornoldi, C. (1998). The impact of metacognitive reflection on cognitive control. In G. Mazzoni & T. O. Nelson (Eds.), Metacognition and cognitive neuropsychology: Monitoring and control processes (pp. 139-159). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
  22. Çağlar, N., Özsoy, F., & Mermi, O. (2016). Sanrılı bozukluk ve obsesif kompulsif bozukluk hastalarinda üstbiliş işlevlerinin değerlendirilmesi [Evaluation of metacognitive functions and clinical characteristics of the patients diagnosed with obsessive compulsive disorder and delusional disorder]. Journal of Contemporary Medicine [Çağdaş Tıp Dergisi], 6(4). doi: 10.16899/ctd.55409
  23. Davies, E. B., Morriss, R., & Glazebrook, C. (2014). Computer-delivered and web-based interventions to improve depression, anxiety, and psychological well-being of university students: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Medical Internet Research, 16(5). doi: 10.2196/jmir.3142
  24. Davis, D., Chen, G., Jivet, I., Hauff, C., & Houben, G-J. (2016). Encouraging Metacognition & Self-Regulation in MOOCs through Increased Learner Feedback. In S. Bull, B. M. Ginon, J. Kay, M. D. Kickmeier-Rust, & M. D. Johnson (Eds.), LAL 2016-Learning Analytics for Learners: Proceedings of the LAK 2016 Workshop on Learning Analytics for Learners (pp. 17-22).
  25. Diener, E. (1984). Subjective well-being. Psychological Bulletin, 95(3), 542-575. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.95.3.542
  26. Diener, E. (2000). Subjective well-being: The science of happiness and a proposal for a national index. American psychologist, 55(1), 34.
  27. Doğan, K., Solak, Ö. S., Özdel, K., & Türkçapar, M. H. (2013). Obsesif kompulsif bozukluk alt tiplerinde ve sağlıklı kontrol grubunda bilişlerin karşılaştırılması. Journal of Cognitive Behavioral Psychotherapy and Research, 2, 34-40. [Doğan, K., Solak, Ö. S., Özdel, K., & Türkçapar, M. H. (2013). Comparison Of Metacognitions Between Obsessive Compulsive Disorder’s Subtypes And Normal Healthy Controls. Journal of Cognitive Behavioral Psychotherapy and Research, 2, 34-40.]
  28. Duque, A., & Vázquez, C. (2015). Double attention bias for positive and negative emotional faces in clinical depression: Evidence from an eye-tracking study. Journal of behavior therapy and experimental psychiatry, 46, 107-114.
  29. Dyrbye, L. N., Thomas, M. R. & Shanafelt, T. D. (2006). Systematic review of depression and anxiety, and other indicators of psychological distress among U. S. and Canadian medical students. Academic Medicine, 81, 354-373.
  30. Dyson, R. & Renk, K. (2006). Freshmen adaptation to university life: Depressive symptoms, stress, and coping. Journal of clinical psychology, 62(10), 1231- 1244.
  31. Eid, M., & Larsen, R. J. (2008). The Science of subjective well-being. New York: Guilford Press.
  32. Ellis, D. M., & Hudson, J. L. (2010). The metacognitive model of generalized anxiety disorder in children and adolescents. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 13(2), 151-163.
  33. Fastame, M. C., Penna, M. P., Rossetti, E. S., & Agus, M. (2012). Perceived well-being and metacognitive efficiency in life course. Research on Aging, 35(6), 736-749. doi: 10.1177/0164027512462411
  34. Fastame, M., & Penna, M. (2013). Does social desirability confound the assessment of self-reported measures of well-being and metacognitive efficiency in young and older adults? Clinical Gerontologist, 36(2), 95-112. doi: 10.1080/07317115.2012.749319
  35. Favrod, J., Rexhaj, S., Bardy, S., Ferrari, P., Hayoz, C., & Moritz, S. et al. (2014). Sustained antipsychotic effect of metacognitive training in psychosis: A randomized-controlled study. European Psychiatry, 29(5), 275-281. doi: 10.1016/j.eurpsy.2013.08.003
  36. Fernandez-Duque, D., Baird, J. A., & Posner, M. I. (2000). Awareness and metacognition. Consciousness and Cognition, 9(2), 324-326. doi:10.1006/ccog.2000.0449 Fisher, P., & Wells, A. (2009). Metacognitive therapy: distinctive features (Vol.1). London: Routledge.
  37. Flavell, J. (1979). Metacognition and cognitive monitoring: A new area of cognitive-developmental inquiry. American Psychologist, 34(10), 906-911. doi: 10.1037/0003-066x.34.10.906
  38. García-Montes, J., Pérez-Álvarez, M., Soto Balbuena, C., Perona Garcelán, S., & Cangas, A. (2006). Metacognitions in patients with hallucinations and obsessive-compulsive disorder: The superstition factor. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 44(8), 1091-1104. doi: 10.1016/j.brat.2005.07.008
  39. Garner, R., & Alexander, P. A. (1989). Metacognition: Answered and unanswered questions. Educational psychologist, 24(2), 143-158.
  40. Grøtte, T., Solem, S., Vogel, P., Güzey, I., Hansen, B., & Myers, S. (2014). Metacognition, responsibility, and perfectionism in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 39(1), 41-50. doi: 10.1007/s10608-014-9635-7
  41. Gwilliam, P., Wells, A., & Cartwright‐Hatton, S. (2004). Dose meta‐cognition or responsibility predict obsessive–compulsive symptoms: a test of the metacognitive model. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy: An International Journal of Theory & Practice, 11(2), 137-144.
  42. Hybron, D. (2000). Two philosophical problems in the study of happiness. Journal of Happiness, 1, 207- 225.
  43. Irak, M., Çapan, D., & Soylu, C. (2015). Üstbilişsel süreçlerde yaşa bağli değişiklikler [Age-related changes in metacognitive processes.]. Turkish Psychology Journal [Türk Psikoloji Dergisi], 30(75).
  44. Kalayci, Ş. (2008). SPSS uygulamalı çok değişkenli istatistik teknikleri. Ankara: Asil Yayıncılık. [Kalaycı, Ş. (2008). SPSS Applied Multivariate Statistics Techniques. Ankara: Asil Publication Distribution.]
  45. Kiaei, Y. A., & Reio Jr, T. G. (2014). Goal pursuit and eudemonic well-being among university students: Metacognition as the mediator. Behavioral Development Bulletin, 19(4), 91.
  46. Köknel, Ö. (2005). Ruhsal Çöküntü Depresyon. İstanbul: Altın Kitaplar Yayınevi.
  47. Köseoğlu, F. (2013). Evaluation of metacognitive functions in major depressive and panic depressive disorder patients (Doctoral thesis). Fırat University, Elazığ, Turkey.
  48. Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer Publishing Company.
  49. Lee, R. S., Hermens, D. F., Porter, M. A., & Redoblado-Hodge, M. A. (2012). A meta-analysis of cognitive deficits in first-episode major depressive disorder. Journal of Affective Disorders, 140(2), 113–124. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2011.10.023
  50. Livingston,A. J. (1997). Metacognition: An Overview. Retrieved November 30, 2020, from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED474273
  51. Lovibond, P., & Lovibond, S. (1995). The structure of negative emotional states: Comparison of the Depression Anxiety Stress Scales (DASS) with the Beck Depression and Anxiety Inventories. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 33(3), 335–343. doi: 10.1016/0005-7967(94)00075-u
  52. Matthews, G., & Wells, A. (2004). Rumination, Depression, and Metacognition: The S-REF Model. Depressive Rumination, 125-151. doi: 10.1002/9780470713853.ch7
  53. Matthews, G., Hillyard, E. J., & Campbell, S. E. (1999). Metacognition and maladaptive coping as components of test anxiety. Clinical Psychology & Psychotherapy, 6(2), 111-125. doi: 10.1002/(sici)1099-0879(199905)6:2 3.0.co;2-4
  54. Mcdermott, L. M., & Ebmeier, K. P. (2009). A meta-analysis of depression severity and cognitive function. Journal of Affective Disorders, 119(1-3), 1-8. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2009.04.022
  55. Moritz, S., Kerstan, A., Veckenstedt, R., Randjbar, S., Vitzthum, F., Schmidt, Woodward, T. (2011). Further evidence for the efficacy of a metacognitive group training in schizophrenia. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 49(3), 151-157. doi: 10.1016/j.brat.2010.11.010
  56. Moritz, S., Peters, M. J. V., Larøi, F., & Lincoln, T. M. (2010). Metacognitive beliefs in obsessive-compulsive patients: A comparison with healthy and schizophrenia participants. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry, 15(6), 531-548. doi: 10.1080/13546801003783508
  57. Morrison, A. P., & Wells, A. (2003). A comparison of metacognitions in patients with hallucinations, delusions, panic disorder, and non-patient controls. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41(2), 251-256.
  58. Morrison, A. P., Wells, A., & Nothard, S. (2000). Cognitive factors in predisposition to auditory and visual hallucinations. British Journal of Clinical Psychology, 39(1), 67-78. doi: 10.1348/014466500163112
  59. Myers, S. G., & Wells, A. (2005). Obsessive-compulsive symptoms: the contribution of metacognitions and responsibility. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 19(7), 806-817. doi:10.1016/j.janxdis.2004.09.004
  60. Neisser, U. (1967). Cognitive psychology. Englewood Cliffs, N.J: Prentice-Hall, Inc.
  61. Newbury-Birch, D. & Kamali F. (2001). Psychological stress, anxiety, depression, job satisfaction, and personality characteristics in preregistration house officers. Postgrad MedJ, 77, 109-111.
  62. Nieto, M. Á. P., Delgado, M. M. R., Mateos, L. L., & Bueno, N. (2010). Cognitive control and anxiety disorders: Metacognitive beliefs and strategies of control thought in GAD and OCD. Clínica y Salud, 21(2), 159-166. doi: 10.5093/cl2010v21n2a5
  63. Nixon, R., Menne, A., Kling, L., Steele, A., Barnes, J., Dohnt, H., & Tyler, H. (2008). Metacognition, working memory, and thought suppression in acute stress disorder. Australian Journal of Psychology, 60(3), 168-174.
  64. Normann, N., Emmerik, A. A. P. V., & Morina, N. (2014). The efficacy of metacognitive therapy for anxiety and depression: A meta-analytic review. Depression and Anxiety, 31(5), 402-411. doi: 10.1002/da.22273
  65. O’Carroll, P. J., & Fisher, P. (2013). Metacognitions, worry and attentional control in predicting OSCE performance test anxiety. Medical Education, 47(6), 562-568. doi: 10.1111/medu.12125
  66. Önen, S., Uğurlu, G. K., & Çayköylü, A. (2013). The relationship between metacognitions and insight in obsessive–compulsive disorder. Comprehensive psychiatry, 54(5), 541-548.
  67. Özsoy, F., & Kuloğlu, M. M. (2017). Major depresif bozukluk ve panik bozukluk hastalarında üstbiliş işlevlerinin değerlendirilmesi [Evaluation of metacognitive functions in patients with major depressive disorder and panic disorder.]. Çağdaş Tıp Dergisi [Contemporary Medicine Journal], 7(1), 42-49.
  68. Paelecke-Habermann, Y., Pohl, J., & Leplow, B. (2005). Attention and executive functions in remitted major depression patients. Journal of Affective Disorders, 89(1-3), 125-135. doi: 10.1016/j.jad.2005.09.006
  69. Papageorgiou, C., & Wells, A. (2003). An empirical test of a clinical metacognitive model of rumination and depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 27, 261-273. doi: 10.1023/A:1023962332399
  70. Rada, R. E., & Johnson-Leong, C. (2004). Stress, burnout, anxiety and depression among dentists. The Journal of the American Dental Association, 135(6), 788-794.
  71. Rahimi, C., & Haghighi, M. (2010). Responsibility attitudes in obsessive-compulsive patients: the contributions of meta-cognitive beliefs and worry. Iranian Journal of Medical Sciences, 35(3), 195-200.
  72. Reuven-Magril, O., Rosenman, M., Liberman, N., & Dar, R. (2009). Manipulating meta-cognitive beliefs about the difficulty to suppress scratching: Implications for obsessive-compulsive disorder. International Journal of Cognitive Therapy, 2(2), 143-151. doi: 10.1521/ijct.2009.2.2.143
  73. Roussis, P., & Wells, A. (2006). Post-traumatic stress symptoms: Tests of relationships with thought control strategies and beliefs as predicted by the metacognitive model. Personality and Individual Differences, 40(1), 111-122. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2005.06.019
  74. Sariçam, H. (2015). Metacognition and Happiness: The mediating role of perceived stress. Studia Psychologica, 57(4), 271-283. doi: 10.21909/sp.2015.03.699
  75. Sharp, L. K., & Lipsky, M. S. (2002). Screening for depression across the lifespan: a review of measures for use in primary care settings. American family physician, 66(6), 1001.
  76. Soderstrom, N. C., Davalos, D. B., & Vázquez, S. M. (2011). Metacognition and depressive realism: Evidence for the level-of-depression account. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry, 16(5), 461-472. doi: 10.1080/13546805.2011.557921
  77. Spada, M. M., Hiou, K., & Nikcevic, A. V. (2006). Metacognitions, emotions, and procrastination. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy, 20(3), 319-326. doi: 10.1891/jcop.20.3.319
  78. Spada, M. M., Mohiyeddini, C., & Wells, A. (2008). Measuring metacognitions associated with emotional distress: Factor structure and predictive validity of the metacognitions questionnaire 30. Personality and Individual Differences, 45(3), 238-242. doi: 10.1016/j.paid.2008.04.005
  79. Tabachnick, B. G., Fidell, L. S., & Ullman, J. B. (2007). Using multivariate statistics (Vol. 5, pp. 481-498). Boston, MA: Pearson.
  80. Taylor, H. E. (2010). Cognitive processes across the continuum of psychosis (Doctoral dissertation). University of Manchester, Manchester, the United Kingdom.
  81. Toffalini, E., Veltri, A., & Cornoldi, C. (2014). Metacognitive aspects influence subjective well-being in parents of children with cancer. Psycho-Oncology, 24(2), 175-180. doi: 10.1002/pon.3622
  82. Tosun, A., & Irak, M. (2008). Üstbiliş Ölçeği-30'un Türkçe uyarlamasi, geçerliği, güvenirliği, kaygi ve obsesif-kompülsif belirtilerle ilişkisi [Turkish adaptation, validity, reliability, and relation of anxiety and obsessive-compulsive symptoms of Metacognition Scale-30]. Turkish Psychiatry Journal [Türk Psikyatri Dergisi], 19(1).
  83. Tuzgöl Dost, M. (2005). Öznel İyi Oluş Ölçeği’nin Geliştirilmesi: Geçerlik ve güvenirlik Çalışması [Development of the subjective well-being scale: A validity and reliability study]. Turkish Psychological Counseling and Guidance Journal [Türk Psikolojik Danışma ve Rehberlik Dergisi], 3, 103-109.
  84. Vaillant, G. (2003). Aging well: Surprising guideposts to a happier life from the landmark harvard study of adult development. New York: Little Brown. Valiente, C., Prados, J. M., Gómez, D., & Fuentenebro, F. (2012). Metacognitive beliefs and psychological well-being in paranoia and depression. Cognitive Neuropsychiatry, 17(6), 527-543. doi: 10.1080/13546805.2012.670504
  85. Veenman, M. V., Wilhelm, P., & Beishuizen, J. J. (2004). The relation between intellectual and metacognitive skills from a developmental perspective. Learning and instruction, 14(1), 89-109.
  86. Wells, A. & Matthews, G. (1994). Attention and emotion: A clinical perspective. UK: Lawrence Erlbaum.
  87. Wells, A. (2002). Emotional disorders and metacognition: Innovative cognitive therapy. UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
  88. Wells, A. (2007). Cognition about cognition: Metacognitive therapy and change in generalized anxiety disorder and social phobia. Cognitive and Behavioral Practice, 14(1), 18-25.
  89. Wells, A. (2008). Metacognitive theory for anxiety and depression. New York: The Guilford Press.
  90. Wells, A., Fisher, P., Myers, S., Wheatley, J., Patel, T., & Brewin, C. R. (2009). Metacognitive Therapy in Recurrent and Persistent Depression: A Multiple-Baseline Study of a New Treatment. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 33(3), 291–300. doi: 10.1007/s10608-007-9178-2
  91. Wells, A., & Cartwright-Hatton, S. (2004). A short form of the metacognitions questionnaire: properties of the MCQ-30. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 42(4), 385-396. doi: 10.1016/s0005-7967(03)00147-5
  92. Wells, A., & Matthews, G. (1996). Modelling cognition in emotional disorder: The S-REF model. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 34(11-12), 881-888. doi: 10.1016/s0005-7967(96)00050-2
  93. Wells, A., & Papageorgiou, C. (1998). Relationships between worry, obsessive–compulsive symptoms and meta-cognitive beliefs. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 36(9), 899-913. doi: 10.1016/s0005-7967(98)00070-9
  94. Wolkowitz, O. M., Epel, E. S., Reus, V. I., & Mellon, S. H. (2010). Depression gets old fast: do stress and depression accelerate cell aging? Depression and anxiety, 27(4), 327-338.
  95. Yalom, İ. D., & Glick, I. D. (2006). Depresyon terapisi. (Y. Engin Çev.). İstanbul: Prestij Yayıncılık. [Yalom, İ. D., & Glick, I. D. (2006). Treating Depression. John Wiley & Sons.]
  96. Yılmaz A. E. (2007). Examination of Metacognitive Factors in Relation to Anxiety and Depressive Symtoms: A Cross-Cultural Study (Unpublished disseration). Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey.
  97. Yılmaz, A. E., Gençöz, T., & Wells, A. (2011). The temporal precedence of metacognition in the development of anxiety and depression symptoms in the context of life-stress: A prospective study. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 25(3), 389-396. doi: 10.1016/j.janxdis.2010.11.001
  98. Yılmaz, A. E., Gençöz, T., & Wells, A. (2014). Unique Contributions of Metacognition and Cognition to Depressive Symptoms. The Journal of General Psychology, 142(1), 23-33. doi: 10.1080/00221309.2014.964658
  99. Yılmaz, S., İzci, F., Mermi, O., & Atmaca, M. (2016). Majör depresif bozukluk ve obsesif kompulsif bozukluk hastalarında üst biliş işlevleri: Kontrollü bir çalışma. Anatolian Journal of Psychiatry/Anadolu Psikiyatri Dergisi, 17(6). [Yılmaz, S., İzci, F., Mermi, O., & Atmaca, M. (2016). Metacognitive functions in patients who has obsessive compulsive disorder and major depressive disorder: a controlled study. Anatolian Journal of Psychiatry/Anadolu Psikiyatri Dergisi, 17(6).