Journals / Anadolu Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi / 2026 / Volume: 9 Issue: 2

The predictive power of planning and attention skills on mathematical ability in the preschool period

Yıldız Güven(MARMARA ÜNİVERSİTESİ, ATATÜRK EĞİTİM FAKÜLTESİ)0000-0002-5120-7381
Diğdem Enerem(MALTEPE ÜNİVERSİTESİ, MESLEK YÜKSEKOKULU, ÇOCUK BAKIMI VE GENÇLİK HİZMETLERİ BÖLÜMÜ, ÇOCUK GELİŞİMİ PR. (ÜCRETLİ))0000-0002-5177-7499
Pages
—
Publication Date
2025-06-03
🏛️Bibliographic metadata and full text access for this article are provided via DergiPark.
DergiPark Record ↗
✨

AI Summary & Key Takeaways

AI Insight
⚡ TL;DR(Too Long; Didn't Read)

These results suggest that planning skills play a critical role in mathematical achievement during the preschool period.

📌 3 Key Takeaways

🎯
Objective & Hypothesis:This study examined the relationship between planning and attention skills and mathematical abilities in preschool children and then assessed the predictive power through regression analysis.
📊
Key Findings & Data:The study, conducted using a relational survey model, consisted of 88 children aged between 60 and 72 months attending a preschool institution in Istanbul.
💡
Conclusion & Impact:These results suggest that planning skills play a critical role in mathematical achievement during the preschool period.
🔬Design:Survey & Empirical Study
📍Scope:Comprehensive Sample
⚙️Variables:Executive functions · Mathematics · Attention

Abstract

This study examined the relationship between planning and attention skills and mathematical abilities in preschool children and then assessed the predictive power through regression analysis. In addition, the prediction power of children's planning and attention skills on mathematics ability was also investigated. The study, conducted using a relational survey model, consisted of 88 children aged between 60 and 72 months attending a preschool institution in Istanbul. The measurement tools used in the study were the "Cognitive Assessment System (CAS)" and the Test of Early Mathematics Ability (TEMA-3). The findings showed a moderate, positive, and significant relationship between early mathematical ability and planning skills (r = .60, p .05). These results suggest that planning skills play a critical role in mathematical achievement during the preschool period. While a significant relationship was found between attention skills and mathematical ability, attention skills were not identified as a direct predictor of mathematical ability. This study highlights the importance of supporting planning skills in early childhood to enhance mathematical development.

🔖

Cite This Article

Güven, Y., Enerem, D. (2025). The predictive power of planning and attention skills on mathematical ability in the preschool period. Anadolu Üniversitesi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, Volume: 9 Issue: 2. https://doi.org/10.34056/aujef.1468339

📄 Full Text PDF Viewer

📄

PDF görüntüleyici hazırlanıyor...

References (101)

  1. Allan, N. P., Hume, L. E., Allan, D. M., Farrington, A. L., & Lonigan, C. J. (2014). Relations between inhibitory control and the development of academic skills in preschool and kindergarten: A meta-analysis. Developmental Psychology, 50(10), 2368-2379. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037493
  2. Altemeier, L.E., Abbott, R.D., & Berninger, V.W. (2008). Executive functions for reading and writing in typical literacy development and dyslexia. Journal of Clinical and Experimental Neuropsychology, 30, 588-606. https://doi.org/10.1080/13803390701562818
  3. Anderson, P. (2002). Assessment and development of executive function (EF) during childhood. Child Neuropsychology, 8(2), 71-82. https://doi.org/10.1076/chin.8.2.71.8724
  4. Anderson, P., Anderson, V., & Garth, J. (2001). Assessment and development of organizational ability: The rey complex figure organizational strategy score (RCF-OSS). The Clinical Neuropsychologist, 15, 81–94. https://doi.org/10.1076/clin.15.1.81.1905
  5. Barkley, R. A. (1997). Behavioral inhibition, sustained attention, and executive functions: Constructing a unifying theory of ADHD. Psychological Bulletin, 121, 65–94. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.121.1.65
  6. Best, J. R., Miller, P.H., & Naglieri, J. A. (2011). Relations between executive function and academic achievement from ages 5 to 17 in a large, representative national sample. Learning and Individual Differences, 21, 327-336. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2011.01.007
  7. Blair, C., & Razza, R. P. (2007). Relating effortful control, executive function, and false belief understanding to emerging math and literacy ability in kindergarten. Child Development, 78, 647–663. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2007.01019.x
  8. Blair, C., Knipe, H., & Gamson, D. (2008). Is there a role for executive functions in the development of mathematics ability? Mind, Brain, and Education, 2(2), 80-89. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-228X.2008.00036.x
  9. Blair, C., Raver, C. C., Berry, D. J., & Family Life Project Investigators. (2014). Two approaches to estimating the effect of parenting on the development of executive function in early childhood. Developmental Psychology, 50(2), 554–565. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033647
  10. Brocki, K.C., & Bohlin, G. (2004) Executive functions in children aged 6 to 13: A dimensional and developmental study. Developmental Neuropsychology, 26(2), 571-593. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326942dn2602_3
  11. Brueggemann, A., & Gable, S. (2018). Preschoolers’ selective sustained attention and numeracy skills and knowledge. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 171, 138-147. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jecp.2018.02.001
  12. Bull, R., & Scerif, G. (2001). Executive functioning as a predictor of children's mathematics ability: Inhibition, switching, and working memory. Developmental Neuropsychology, 19(3), 273-293. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326942DN1903_3
  13. Bull, R., Espy, K. A., & Senn, T. E. (2004). A comparison of performance on the Towers of London and Hanoi in young children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 743–754. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2004.00268.x
  14. Bull, R., Espy, K. A., & Wiebe, S. A. (2008). Short-term memory, working memory, and executive functioning in preschoolers: Longitudinal predictors of mathematical achievement at age 7 years. Developmental Neuropsychology, 33(3), 205-228. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565640801982312
  15. Bull, R., Espy, K. A., Wiebe, S. A., Sheffield, T. D., & Nelson, J. M. (2011). Using confirmatory factor analysis to understand executive control in preschool children: Sources of variation in emergent mathematical achievement. Developmental Science, 14(4), 679-692. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2010.01012.x
  16. Büyüköztürk Ş, Çakmak Kılıç E, Akgün Ö.E., Karadeniz Ş., & Demirel F. (2020). Eğitimde bilimsel araştırma yöntemleri̇ (Scientific research methods in education). Pegem
  17. Carlson, S. M., & Moses, L. J. (2001). Individual differences in inhibitory control and children’s theory of mind. Child Development, 72, 1032- 1053. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00333
  18. Carlson, S. M., Moses, L. J., & Claxton, L. J. (2004). Individual differences in executive functioning and theory of mind: An investigation of inhibitory control and planning ability. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 87, 299–319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2004.01.002
  19. Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University. (2014). Enhancing and practicing executive function skills with children from infancy to adolescence. Retrieved from. http://www.developingchild.harvard.edu
  20. Clark, C. A. C., Pritchard, V. E., & Woodward, L. J. (2010). Preschool executive functioning abilities predict early mathematics achievement. Developmental Psychology, 46, 1176-1191. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019672
  21. Clements, D. H., & Sarama, J. (2019). Executive function and early mathematical learning difficulties. In A. Fritz, V. G. Haase & P. Räsänen (Eds.), International handbook of mathematical learning difficulties (pp. 755-771). New York: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-97148-3_9
  22. Clements, D. H., Sarama, J., & Germeroth, C. (2015). Learning executive function and early mathematics. Directions of causal relations. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 36(3), 79-90. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2015.12.009
  23. Cowan, R., Hurry, J., & Midouhas, E. (2018). The relationship between learning mathematics and general cognitive ability in primary school. British Journal of Development Psychology, 36, 277–284. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjdp.12200
  24. Cueli, M., Areces, D., García, T., Alves, R. A., & González-Castro, P. (2020). Attention, inhibitory control and early mathematical skills in preschool students. Psicothema, 32 (2), 237–244. https://doi.org/10.7334/psicothema2019.225
  25. Diamond, A. (1990). The development and neural bases of memory functions as indexed by AB and delayed response tasks in human infants and infant monkeys. Annuals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 608, 267–317. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-6632.1990.tb48900.x
  26. Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64, 135-168. http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750
  27. Drake, C., & Palmer, C. (2000). Skill acquisition in music performance: Relations between planning and temporal control. Cognition, 74(1), 1–32. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-0277(99)00061-X
  28. Duncan, G. J., Dowsett, C. J., Claessens, A., Magnuson, K., Huston,A. C., Klebanov, P., & Japel, C. (2007). School readiness and laterachievement. Developmental Psychology, 43, 1428-1446. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.43.6.1428
  29. Erdoğan, S., & Baran, G., (2006). Erken matematik yeteneği testi 3 (tema-3)’ün 60-72 aylar arasında olan çocuklar için uyarlama çalışması (The Study of Adaptation Test of Early Mathematics Ability-3 (TEMA-3) for 60-72, Mounth Old Children). Contemporary Education Journal, 31(332), 32-38. https://search.trdizin.gov.tr/en/yayin/detay/74471/erken-matematik-yetenegi-testi-3-tema-3un-60-72-aylar-arasinda-olan-cocuklar-icin-uyarlama-calismasi
  30. Ergin, T. (2003). Cognitive Assessment System (CAS) geçerlik, güvenilirlik ve beş yaşındaki çocuklar üzerinde norm çalışması (Reliability, validity and norm studies of cognitive assessment system (CAS) on children who are five years of age). (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Istanbul University.
  31. Field, A. (2009). Discovering statistics using SPSS: Book plus code for E version of text (p. 896). London, UK: SAGE Publications Limited.
  32. Flavell, J (1999). Cognitive development: Children's knowledge about the mind. Annual Review of Psychology, 50, 21-45. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.50.1.21
  33. Freier, L., Cooper, R. P., & Mareschal, D. (2015). The planning and execution of natural sequential actions in the preschool years. Cognition, 144, 58–66. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2015.07.005
  34. Friso-Van den Bos, I., Van der Ven, S. H., Kroesbergen, E. H., & Van Luit, J. E. (2013). Working memory and mathematics in primary school children: A meta-analysis. Educational Research Review, 10, 29-44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2013.05.003
  35. Fuhs, M. W., Nesbitt, K. T., Farran, D. C., & Dong, N. (2014). Longitudinal associations between executive functioning and academic skills across content areas. Developmental Psychology, 50(6), 1698–1709. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036633
  36. García, T., Rodríguez, C., González-Castro, P., Álvarez-García, D., & González-Pienda, J. A. (2016). Metacognition and executive functioning in Elementary School. Anales de Psicología, 32(2), 474-483. https://doi.org/10.6018/analesps.32.2.202891
  37. Garon, N., Bryson, S. E., & Smith, I. M. (2008). Executive function in preschoolers: A review using an integrative framework. Psychological Bulletin, 134(1), 31–60. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.134.1.31
  38. Geary, D. C. (2013). Early foundations for mathematics learning and their relations to learning disabilities. Current Directions in Psychological Science 22(1) 23-27. http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0963721412469398
  39. George, D. & Mallery, P. (2010) SPSS for Windows Step by Step: A Simple Guide and Reference 17.0 Update (10th Edition). Pearson.
  40. Ginsburg, H., & Baroody, A. (2003). Test of Early Mathematics Ability (3rd ed.). Austin, TX: Pro-Ed.
  41. González-Castro, P., Rodríguez, C., Cueli, M., Cabeza, L., & Álvarez, L. (2014). Math competence and executive control skills in students with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder and mathematics learning disabilities. Revista de Psicodidáctica, 19(1), 125-143. http://dx.doi.org/10.1387/RevPsicodidact.7510
  42. Green S. (1991) How many subjects does it take to do a regression analysis? Multivariate Behavioral Research, 26(3), 499-510.
  43. Güven, Y. (1997). Erken Matematik Yeteneği Test-2’nin geçerlik, güvenirlik, norm çalışması ve sosyo-kültürel faktörlerin matematik yeteneğine etkisinin incelenmesi (A study on the validity, reliability, norming, and the influence of socio-cultural factors on mathematical ability in the Early Mathematical Ability Test-2). (Doctoral dissertation). Marmara University.
  44. Hanna-Pladdy B. (2007). Dysexecutive syndromes in neurologic disease. Journal of Neurologic Physical Therapy, 31, 119–127. https://doi.org/10.1097/npt.0b013e31814a63c2
  45. Harvey, H. A., & Miller, G. E. (2017). Executive function skills, early mathematics, and vocabulary in head start preschool children. Early Education and Development, 28(3), 290-307. http://dx.doi.org/10.108 0/10409289.2016.1218728
  46. Hughes, C., & Graham, A. (2002). Measuring executive functions in childhood: Problems and solutions ? Child and Adolescent Mental Health, 7, 131-142.
  47. Kaçan, M. O., & Halmatov, M. (2017). Mathematics in the preschool education program implemented in Turkey: Planning and implementation. Pamukkale University Journal of Education, 42(42), 149-161. http://dx.doi.org/10.9779/PUJE844
  48. Karasar, N. (2013). Bilimsel Araştırma Yöntemi. Ankara: Nobel
  49. Kochanska, G., Murray, K. T., & Harlan, E. T. (2000). Effortful control in early childhood: Continuity and change, antecedents, and implications for social development. Developmental Psychology, 36(2), 220–232. https://doi.org/10.1037/0012-1649.36.2.220
  50. Kroesbergen, E. H., Van de Rijt, B. A. M., & Van Luit, J. H. E. (2007). Working memory and early mathematics: Possibilities for early identification of mathematics learning disabilities. Advances in Learning and Behavioral Disabilities, 20, 1–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0735-004X(07)20001-1
  51. Kroesbergen, E. H., Van Luit, J. E. H., & Naglieri, J. A. (2003). Mathematical learning difficulties and PASS cognitive processes. Journal of Learning Disabilities. 36(6), 574-582.
  52. Kroesbergen, E.H., Van Luit, J., Van Lieshout, E., Van Loosbroek, E., & Van de Rijt, B.A.M. (2009). Individual differences in early numeracy the role of executive functions and subitizing. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 27, 226–236. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282908330586
  53. Landerl, K., & Kölle, C. (2009). Typical and atypical development of basic numerical skills in elementary school. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 103(4), 546-565. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2008.12.006
  54. Locascio, G., Mahone, E. M., Eason, S. H., & Cutting, L. E. (2010). Executive dysfunction among children with reading comprehension deficits. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 43, 441–454. doi:10.1177/0022219409355476
  55. Marcovitch, S., ve Zelazo, P. D. (2009). A hierarchical competing systems model of the emergence and early development of executive function. Developmental Science, 12, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2008.00754.x
  56. Matthews, J. S., Ponitz, C. C., & Morrison, F. J. (2009). Early gender differences in self-regulation and academic achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 101(3), 689. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0014240
  57. McClelland, M. M., Acock, A. C., & Morrison, F. J. (2006). The impact of kindergarten learning-related skills on academic trajectories at the end of elementary school. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 21(4), 471-490. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2006.09.003
  58. Meltzer, L. (2013). Executive function and metacognition in students with learning disabilities: New approaches to assessment and intervention. International Journal for Research in Learning Disabilities, 1(2), 31- 63. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203893753
  59. Miyake, A., Friedman, N., Emerson, M., Witzki, A., Howerter, A., & Wager, T. (2000). The unity and diversity of executive functions and their contributions to complex "frontal lobe" tasks: A latent variable analysis. Cognitive Psychology, 41(1), 49- 100. https://doi.org/10.1006/cogp.1999.0734
  60. Montgomery, D. E. & Koeltzow, T. E. (2010). A review of the day-night task: The Stroop paradigm and interference control in young children. Developmental Review, 30, 308-330. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2010.07.001
  61. Montoya, M. F., Susperreguy, M. I., Dinarte, L., Morrison, F. J., San Martín, E., Rojas-Barahona, C. A., & Förster, C. E. (2019). Executive function in Chilean preschool children: Do short-term memory, working memory, and response inhibition contribute differentially to early academic skills? Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 46, 187-200. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2018.02.009
  62. Morrison, F. J., Ponitz, C. C., & McClelland, M. M. (2010). Self-regulation and academic achievement in the transition to school. In S. D. Calkins & M. A. Bell (Eds.), Child development at the intersection of emotion and cognition (pp. 203–224). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/12059-011
  63. Motavallı, N. M. (2000). Child and adolescent psychiatry. Istanbul: Nobel Medical Bookstore.
  64. Naglieri, J. A. & Johnson, D. (2000). Effectiveness of a cognitive strategy intervention in improving arithmetic computation based on the PASS theory. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33, 591–597.
  65. Naglieri, J. A., & Kaufman, J. C. (2001). Understanding intelligence, giftedness and creativity using the pass theory. Roeper Review, 23(3), 151–156. https://doi.org/10.1080/02783190109554087
  66. Naglieri, J. A., & Otero, T. M. (2017). Essentials of CAS2 assessment. John Wiley & Sons.
  67. Naglieri, J. A., Rojahn, J., & Matto, H. C. (2007). Hispanic and non-Hispanic children's performance on PASS cognitive processes and achievement. Intelligence, 35, 568–579. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2006.11.001
  68. Naglieri, J. A., Salter, C. J., & Edwards, G. H. (2004). Assessment of Children with Attention and Reading Difficulties Using the Pass Theory and Cognitive Assessment System. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 22(2), 93–105. https://doi.org/10.1177/073428290402200201
  69. Naglieri, J.A & Rojahn, J. (2001). Gender differences in planning, attention, simultaneous, and successive (PASS) cognitive processes and achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 93(2), 430-437. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.93.2.430
  70. Naglieri, J.A & Rojahn, J. (2004). Construct validity of the PASS theory and CAS: Correlations with achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 96 (1), 174–181. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.96.1.174
  71. Naglieri, J.A. & Gottling, S.H. (1997). Mathematics Instruction and PASS Cognitive Processes: An Intervention Study. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 30(5), 513-520. https://doi.org/10.1177/002221949703000507
  72. Naglieri., J. A., & Otero, T. M. (2020). The Cognitive Assessment System: From Theory to Practice. Second Edition. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305219642
  73. Ni, T.-L., Huang, C.-C.,& Guo, N.-W. (2011). Executive function deficit in preschool children born very low birth weight with normal early development. Early Human Development, 87(2), 137–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.earlhumdev.2010.11.013
  74. Pallant, J. (2016). SPSS Survival Manual: A step by step guide to data analysis using SPSS program (6th ed.). London, UK: McGraw-Hill Education.
  75. Pappas, M. A., Polychroni, F. & Drigas, A. (2019). Assessment of Mathematics Difficulties for Second and Third Grades Cognitive and Psychological Parameters. Behavioral Sciences, 9 (76).1-13. https://doi.org/10.3390/bs9070076
  76. Peng, P., Namkung, J. M., Fuchs, D., Fuchs, L. S., Patton, S., Yen, L., Hamlett, C. (2016). A longitudinal study on predictors of early calculation development among young children at-risk for learning difficulties. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 152, 221-241. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2016.07.017
  77. Peng, P., Wang, C., & Namkung, J. (2018). Understanding the cognition related to mathematics difficulties: A meta-analysis on the cognitive deficit profiles and the bottleneck theory. Review of Educational Research, 88(3), 434-476. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654317753350
  78. Purpura, D. J., Schmitt, S. A., & Ganley, C. M. (2017). Foundations of mathematics and literacy: The role of executive functioning components. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 153, 15-34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2016.08.010
  79. Rabiner, D. L. Coie, J. D., & Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group. (2000). Early attention problems and children's reading achievement: A longitudinal investigation. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 39, 859 – 867. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-200007000-00014
  80. Rajendran, G., & Mitchell, P. (2007). Cognitive theories of autism. Developmental Review, 27, 224–260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2007.02.00x
  81. Razza, R. A., Martin, A., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2012). The implications of early attentional regulation for school success among low-income children. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 33(6), 311-319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2012.07.005
  82. Ribner, A. D., Willoughby, M. T., Blair, C. B., & The Family Life Project Key Investigators. (2017). Executive function buffers the association between early math and later academic skills. Frontiers in Psychology, 8, Article 869. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00869
  83. Schmitt, S. A., Geldhof, G. J., Purpura, D. J., Duncan, R., & McClelland, M. M. (2017). Examining the relations between executive function, math, and literacy during the transition to kindergarten: A multianalytic approach. Journal of Educational Psychology, 109(8), 1120- 1140. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/edu0000193
  84. Sonuga-Barke, E. J. S., Dalen, L., Daley, D., & Remington, B. (2002). Are Planning, working memory, and inhibition associated with individual differences in preschool adhd symptoms? Developmental Neuropsychology, 21,255–272. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326942DN2103_3
  85. Steinmayr, R. Ziegler, M. ¬¬& Träuble, B. (2010). Do intelligence and sustained attention interact in predicting academic achievement? Learning and Individual Differences, 20, 14–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2009.10.009
  86. Swanson, H. L. (2006). Cognitive processes that underlie mathematical precociousness in young children. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 93(3), 239-264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2005.09.006
  87. Szucs, D., Devine, A., Soltesz, F., Nobes, A., & Gabriel, F. (2013). Developmental dyscalculia is related to visuo-spatial memory and inhibition impairment. Cortex, 49, 2674-2688. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2013/06.007
  88. Tabachnick, B. G., Fidell, L. S., & Ullman, J. B. (2013). Using multivariate statistics (6th ed., pp. 497-516). Pearson.
  89. Toplak, M. E., West, R. F., & Stanovich, K. E. (2013). Practitioner review: Do performance‐based measures and ratings of executive function assess the same construct? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54(2), 131-143. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12001
  90. UNESCO. (2017). More than one-half of children and adolescents are not learning worldwide [Report]. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Retrieved from https://unesdoc.unesco.org/
  91. Van Der Stel, M., & Veenman, M. V. (2014). Metacognitive skills and intellectual ability of young adolescents: A longitudinal study from a developmental perspective. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 29, 117-137. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-013-0195-4
  92. Van der Ven, S. H., Kroesbergen, E. H., Boom, J., & Leseman, P. P. (2012). The development of executive functions and early mathematics: A dynamic relationship. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(1), 100-119. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2044-8279.2011.02035.x
  93. Viterbori, P. Usai, M. C. Traverso, L. & De Franchis, V. (2015). How preschool executive functioning predicts several aspects of math achievement in Grades 1 and 3: A longitudinal study. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 140, 38-55. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2015.06.014
  94. Walcott, C. M., Scheemaker, A., & Bielski, K. (2010). A longitudinal investigation of inattention and preliteracy development. Journal of Attention Disorders, 14(1), 79–85. https://doi.org/10.1177/1087054709333330
  95. Welsh, J. A., Nix, R. L., Blair, C., Bierman, K. L., & Nelson, K. E. (2010). The development of cognitive skills and gains in academic school readiness for children from low-income families. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(1), 43-53. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0016738x
  96. Welsh, M. Pennington, B. & Groisser, D. (1991). A normative-developmental study of executive function: A window on prefrontal function in children. Developmental Neuropsychology, 7, 131–149. https://doi.org/10.1080/87565649109540483
  97. Zelazo, P. D., Carter, A., Reznick, J. S., & Frye, D. (1997). Early development of executive function: A problem-solving framework. Review of General Psychology, 1(2), 198–226. https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.1.2.198
  98. Carlson, S. M., Moses, L. J., & Claxton, L. J. (2004). Individual differences in executive functioning and theory of mind: An investigation of inhibitory control and planning ability. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 87, 299–319. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2004.01.002
  99. Karasar, N. (2013). Bilimsel Araştırma Yöntemi. Ankara: Nobel
  100. Kroesbergen, E.H., Van Luit, J., Van Lieshout, E., Van Loosbroek, E., & Van de Rijt, B.A.M. (2009). Individual differences in early numeracy the role of executive functions and subitizing. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 27, 226–236. https://doi.org/10.1177/0734282908330586
  101. Pallant, J. (2016). SPSS Survival Manual: A step by step guide to data analysis using SPSS program (6th ed.). London, UK: McGraw-Hill Education.