Journals / Journal of Tourismology / 2026 / Volume: 9 Issue: 1

Firm Size and Factors of Competitiveness in Micro Tourism Clusters: Ürgüp Case

Nuray Topuz Cerrah(GAZI UNIVERSITY, FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE, DEPARTMENT OF CITY AND REGIONAL PLANNING)0000-0003-4220-7125
Bilge Armatlı Köroğlu(GAZI UNIVERSITY, FACULTY OF ARCHITECTURE, DEPARTMENT OF CITY AND REGIONAL PLANNING)0000-0001-7188-3670
Pages
—
Publication Date
2023-11-21
🏛️Bibliographic metadata and full text access for this article are provided via DergiPark.
DergiPark Record ↗
✨

AI Summary & Key Takeaways

AI Insight
⚡ TL;DR(Too Long; Didn't Read)

Medium and large firms are more advantageous in terms of factors of competitiveness; however, micro and small firms contribute to complementarity and regional competitiveness more.

📌 3 Key Takeaways

🎯
Objective & Hypothesis:The aim of this article is to reveal the relationship between firm size and the factors affecting tourism firm competitiveness in micro tourism clusters.
📊
Key Findings & Data:The results reveal that micro and small firms have lower partnership rate, difficulty in global marketing, lower foreign tourist rate, lower membership rate in collective bodies, lower education level of entrepreneurs, put less emphasis on certification, participate less in tourism decision-making processes, and take fewer measures to protect the environment.
💡
Conclusion & Impact:Medium and large firms are more advantageous in terms of factors of competitiveness; however, micro and small firms contribute to complementarity and regional competitiveness more.
🔬Design:Research Article
📍Scope:Comprehensive Sample
⚙️Variables:Firm size · firm competitiveness · tourism clusters

Abstract

The aim of this article is to reveal the relationship between firm size and the factors affecting tourism firm competitiveness in micro tourism clusters. Firm level competitiveness is discussed in relation to industry level, and the factors affecting firm competitiveness are defined in parallel to tourism cluster competitiveness. Structural characteristics of the tourism industry and cluster scale are also discussed in theoretical discussions. The results reveal that micro and small firms have lower partnership rate, difficulty in global marketing, lower foreign tourist rate, lower membership rate in collective bodies, lower education level of entrepreneurs, put less emphasis on certification, participate less in tourism decision-making processes, and take fewer measures to protect the environment. Therefore, micro and small firms have weaker network connections and associating sustainability automatically with small scale is wrong. It is also revealed that economies of scope and diagonal clustering work negatively in relation to firm size. Thus, it seems contradictory to associate economies of scope and diagonal clustering at the same time in micro tourism clusters. Medium and large firms are more advantageous in terms of factors of competitiveness; however, micro and small firms contribute to complementarity and regional competitiveness more.

🔖

Cite This Article

Cerrah, N. T., Köroğlu, B. A. (2023). Firm Size and Factors of Competitiveness in Micro Tourism Clusters: Ürgüp Case. Journal of Tourismology, Volume: 9 Issue: 1. https://doi.org/10.26650/jot.2023.9.1.1330899

📄 Full Text PDF Viewer

📄

PDF görüntüleyici hazırlanıyor...

References (125)

  1. Agustin, E. S., Martini, R., & Setiyono, B. (2022). Evaluating rural tourism competitiveness: Application of PROMETHEE-GAIA method. Cogent Economics & Finance, 10(1), 1-16. google scholar
  2. Aires, J., Costa, C., Brandao, F. (2022). Exploring indicators and determinants to evaluate innovation in tourism firms -A systematic literatüre review. Tourism, 70(4), 656-673. google scholar
  3. Akbaba, A. (2012). Understanding small tourism businesses: A perspective from Turkey. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Management, 19(1),31-47. google scholar
  4. Akben-Selcuk, E. (2016). Factors affecting firm competitiveness: Evidence from an emerging market. International Journal of Financial Studies, 4(9), 1-10. google scholar
  5. Albrecht, J. N. (2013). Networking for sustainable tourism - Towards a research agenda. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 21(5), 639-657. google scholar
  6. Ambastha, A., & Momaya, K. (2004). Competitiveness of firms: Review of theory, frameworks and models. Singapore Management Review, 26(1), 45-61. google scholar
  7. Arnstein, S. R. (1969). A ladder of citizen participation. Journal of the American Institute of Planners, 35(4), 216-224, google scholar
  8. Armatlı Köroğlu, B. (2011). Bölgesel küme politikaları: Rekabet ve işbirliği. Ankara: T.C. Bayındırlık ve İskan Bakanlığı, TAU. google scholar
  9. Armatlı Köroğlu, B. (2013). İstanbul kuyumculuk kümesi yenilik ve tasarim kapasitesi. Ekonomik Yaklaşım, 23(84), 81-102. google scholar
  10. Armatlı Köroğlu, B., & Özelçi Eceral, T. (2017). Rethinking space in production networks: Network centrality and R&D activities in Ankara defense and aviation cluster. Journal of Science, 30(2), 17-33. google scholar
  11. Baggio, R. (2011). Collaboration and cooperation in a tourism destination: A network science approach. Current Issues in Tourism, 14(2), 183-189. google scholar
  12. Baggio, R., Scott, N., & Cooper, C. (2011). Design of tourism governance networks. Tourist Destination Governance: Practice, Theories and Issues, 1-15. google scholar
  13. Banwet, D. K., Momaya, K. S., & Shee, H. (2003). Competitiveness through technology management: An empirical study of the Indian software industry. International Journal of Services Technology and Management, 4(2), 131-155 google scholar
  14. Barney, J. (1991). Firm resources and sustained competitive advantage. Journal of Management, 17(1), 99-120. google scholar
  15. Becker, G. (1964). Human capital: A theoretical and empirical analysis with special reference to education. New York: Columbia University Press. google scholar
  16. Brandenburger, A., & Nalebuff, B. J. (1997). Co-opetition. Newyork: Currency Doubleday. google scholar
  17. Bressan, A., & Pedrini, M. (2020). Exploring sustainable-oriented. Tourism Planning & Development, 17(5), 497-514. google scholar
  18. Buhalis, D., & Main, H. (1998). Information technology in peripheral small and medium hospitality enterprises: Strategic analysis and critical factors. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, 10(5), 198-202. google scholar
  19. Buhalis, D. (2000). Marketing the competitive destination of the future. Tourism Management, 21(1), 97-116. google scholar
  20. Burgos, A., & Mertens, F. (2017). Participatory management of community-based tourism: A network perspective. Community Development, 48(4), 546-565. google scholar
  21. Burnaz, E., & Ayyıldız, H. (2018). Destinasyon rekabetçiliği endeksi önerisi. Uluslararası İktisadi ve İdari İncelemeler Dergisi, 21, 237-254. google scholar
  22. Butler, R. W. (1980). The concept of a tourist area cycle of evolution: Implications for management of resources. The Canadian Geographer, 24(1), 5-12. google scholar
  23. Butler, R. W. (1999) Sustainable Tourism: A state-of-the-art review. Tourism Geographies, 1(1), 7-25. google scholar
  24. Camarinha-Matos, L. M., Afsarmanesh, H., & Boucher, X. (2010). The role of collaborative networks in sustainability. in L. M., Camarinha-Matos, X., Boucher, & H. Afsarmanesh, (Ed.), Collaborative networks for a sustainable world (pp. 1-16). St. Etienne (France): Springer. google scholar
  25. Camison, C., & Fores, B. (2015). Is tourism firm competitiveness driven by different internal or external specific factors? New empirical evidence from Spain. Tourism Management, 48, 477-499. google scholar
  26. Colaric-Jakse, L. M., & Ambroz, M. (2015). Actor-network theory and stakeholder collaboration: The case of Slovenia. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 6(3), 231-239. google scholar
  27. Capon, N., Farley, J. U., & Hoenig, S. (1990). Determinants of financial performance: A meta-analysis. Management Science, 36(10), 1143-1159. google scholar
  28. Chaston, I. and T, Mangles, (1987) Core capabilities as predictor of growth in small manufacturing firms. Journal of Small Business Management, 35 (1), 47-57. google scholar
  29. Cracolici, M. F., Nijkamp, P., & Rietveld, P (2008). Assessment of tourism competitiveness by analysing destination efficiency. Tourism Economics, 14(2), 325-342. google scholar
  30. Crouch, G. I., & Ritchie, J. (1999). Tourism, competitiveness and societal prosperity. Journal of Business Research, 44(3), 137-152. google scholar
  31. Crouch, G. I. (2011). Destination competitiveness: An analysis of determinant attributes. Journal of Travel Research, 50(1), 27-45. google scholar
  32. Cunha, S. K., & Cunha, J. C. (2005). Tourism cluster competitiveness and sustainability: Proposal for a systemic model to measure the impact of tourism on local development. Brazilian Administration Review, 2(2), 47-62. google scholar
  33. Dredge, D. (2006). Policy networks and the local organisation of tourism. Tourism Management, 27(2), 269-280. google scholar
  34. Dwyer, L., & Kim, C. (2003). Destination competitiveness: Determinants and indicators. Current Issues in Tourism, 6(5), 369-414. google scholar
  35. Durân-Român, J. L., Cârdenas-Garaa, P J., & Pulido-Fernândez, J. I. (2021). Tourist tax to improve sustainability and the experience in mass tourism destinations: The case of Andalusia (Spain). Sustainability, 13(42), 1-20. google scholar
  36. Enright, M. J., & Newton, J. (2004). Determinants of tourism destination competitiveness in Asia Pacific: Comprehensiveness and universality. Journal of Travel Research, 43(4), 339-350. google scholar
  37. Eraydın, A., & Armatlı Köroğlu, B. (2005). Innovation, networking and the new industrial districts: The characteristics of networks and local innovation capabilities in the Turkish industrial clusters. Entrepreneurship and Regional Development, 17(4), 237-266. google scholar
  38. Eraydın, A., & Armatlı Köroğlu, B. (2007). Increasing role of services in competitive power and innovativeness of firms and industrial clusters. European Planning Studies, 12(7), 905 - 925. google scholar
  39. Erkus Özturk, H. (2009). The role of cluster types and firm size in designing the level of network relations: The experience of the Antalya tourism region. Tourism Management, 30(4), 589-597. google scholar
  40. Erkus-Öztürk, H., & Eraydın, A. (2010). Environmental governance for sustainable tourism development: Collaborative networks and organisation building in the Antalya tourism region. Tourism Management, 31(1), 113-124. google scholar
  41. Erkuş-Öztürk, H. (2011). Emerging importance of institutional capacity for the growth of tourism clusters: The case of Antalya. European Planning Studies, 19(10), 1735-1753. google scholar
  42. Erkuş-Öztürk, H., & Terhorst, P. (2011). Two micro-models of tourism capitalism and the (re)scaling of state-business relations. Tourism Geographies, 14(3), 1-30. google scholar
  43. Estevâo, C. M., & Ferreira, J. J. (2009). Regional competitiveness of tourism cluster: A conceptual model proposal. Munich Personal RePEc Archive, 1-19. google scholar
  44. Font, X., Torres-Delgado, A., Crabolu, G., Martinez, J. P., Kantenbacher, J., & Miller, G. (2023). The impact of sustainable tourism indicators on destination competitiveness: The European tourism indicator system. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 31(7), 1608-1630. google scholar
  45. Galbreath, J., & Galvin, P. (2008). Firm factors, industry structure and performance variation: New empirical evidence to a classic debate. Journal of Business Research, 61(2), 109-117. google scholar
  46. Gibson, L., & Lynch, P. (2007). Networks: Comparing community experiences. in E. J. Michael (Ed.), Micro-clusters and networks: The growth of tourism (pp. 107-126). Oxford: Elsevier Ltd. google scholar
  47. Goffi, G., & Cucculelli, M. (2014). Components of destination competitiveness. The case of small tourism destinations in Italy. International Journal of Tourism Policy, 5(4), 296-326. google scholar
  48. Gooroochurn, N., & Sugiyarto, G. (2005). Competitiveness indicators in the travel and tourism industry. Tourism Economics, 11(1), 25-43. google scholar
  49. Gonzâlez-Rodriguez, M. R., D^az-Fernândez, M. C., & Pulido-Pavon, N. (2023). Tourist destination competitiveness: An international approach through the travel and tourism competitiveness index. Tourism Management Perspectives, 47(101127), 1-13. google scholar
  50. Graci, S. (2013). Collaboration and partnership development for sustainable tourism. Tourism Geographies, 15(1), 25-42. google scholar
  51. Gray, B., & Wood, D. J. (1991). Collaborative alliances: Moving from practice to theory. The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, 27 (1),3-22. google scholar
  52. Hall, C. M., Lynch, P., Michael, E. J., & Mitchell, R. (2007). The contribution of the micro-cluster approach. in E.J. Michael (Ed.), Micro-clusters and networks: The growth of tourism (pp. 141-152). Oxford: Elsevier Ltd. google scholar
  53. Hall, C. M. (2009). Rethinking collaboration and partnership: A public policy perspective. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 1(3), 274-289. google scholar
  54. Hassan, S. (2000). Determinants of market competitiveness in an environmentally sustainable tourism industry. Journal of Travel Research, 38(3), 239-245. google scholar
  55. Hawawini, G., Subramanian, V., & Verdin, P. (2003). Is performance driven by industry or firm specific factors? A new look at the evidence. Strategic Management Journal, 24(1), 1-16. google scholar
  56. Heath, E. (2002). Towards a model to enhance Africa’s sustainable tourism competitiveness. Journal of Public Administration, 37(1), 327-353. google scholar
  57. Hing, V., Thangavelu, S., & Kong, R. (2023). Technology, innovation, and firm competitiveness: Firm level analysis in Cambodia. ADBI Working Paper. 1353. Tokyo: Asian Development Bank Institute. google scholar
  58. Hjalager, A.-M. (2010). A review of innovation research in tourism. Tourism Management, 31(1), 1-12. google scholar
  59. Iorio, M., & Corsale, A. (2014). Community-based tourism and networking: Viscri, Romania. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 22(2), 234-255. google scholar
  60. Jamal, T. B., & Getz, D. (1995). Collaboration theory and community tourism planning. Annals of Tourism Research, 22(1), 186-204. google scholar
  61. Jovanovic, S., Milic, V. J., & Krstic, B. (2014). Homogeneity analysis of South-Eastern EuropeanCountries according to tourismcompetitiveness performances. Economic Research, 27(1), 207-220. google scholar
  62. Kachniewska, M. (2013). Towards the definition of a tourism cluster: Entrepreneurship in tourism and sport. Journal of Entrepreneurship Management and Innovation, 9(1), 33-56. google scholar
  63. Kaku, R. (1997), The path of Kyosei. Harvard Business Review, July-August 75(4), 55-63. google scholar
  64. Kale, E. (2016). Küçük ölçekli turizm girişimciliğinin özelliklerinin belirlenmesi. Uluslararası Yönetim İktisat ve İşletme Dergisi, 12(30),159-173 google scholar
  65. Kallmuenzer, A., & Peters, M. (2018). Entrepreneurial behaviour, firm size and financial performance: The case of rural tourism family firms. Tourism Recreation Research, 43(1), 2-14. google scholar
  66. Karacaoğlu, S., Yolal, M., & Birdir, K. (2016). Toplum temelli turizm projelerinde katılım ve paylaşım:Misi Köyü örneği. Çağ Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 13(2), 103-124. google scholar
  67. Kayar, Ç. H., & Kozak, N. (2010). Measuring destination competitiveness: An application of the travel and tourism competitiveness index (2007). Journal of Hospitality Marketing & Management, 19(3), 203-216. google scholar
  68. Kim, N., & Wicks, B. E. (2010). Rethinking tourism cluster development models for global competitiveness. in 2010 ICHRIE Conference Proceedings (pp. 1-9). University of Massachusetts Amherst. google scholar
  69. Kitson, M., Ron, M., & Tyler, P. (2004). Regional competitiveness: An elusive yet key concept? Regional Studies, 38(9), 991-999. google scholar
  70. Koçak, B. (2018). Tedarik zinciri ölçek ve kapsam ekonomileri modelinin araştırılması. Doctoral Thesis. Maltepe University. google scholar
  71. Kozak, M., & Rimmington, M. (1999). Measuring tourist destination competitiveness: Conceptual considerations and empirical findings. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 18(3), 273-283. google scholar
  72. Krstic, B., Jovanovic, S., Jankovic-Milic, V., & Stanisic, T. (2016). Examination of travel and tourism competitiveness contribution to national economy competitiveness of Sub-Saharan Africa Countries. Development Southern Africa, 33(4), 470-485. google scholar
  73. Krugman, P. (1994). Competitiveness: A dangerous obsession. Foreign Affairs, 73(2), 28-44. google scholar
  74. Kumar, K., & Dissel, H. G. (1996). Sustainable collaboration: Managing conflict and cooperation in interorganizational systems. MIS Quarterly,20(3), 279-300. google scholar
  75. Kumar, S., Kumar, D., & Nicolau, J. L. (2024). How does culture influence a country’s travel and tourism competitiveness? A longitudinal frontier study on 39 countries. Tourism Management, 100(104822), 1-16. google scholar
  76. Küçükaslan, A., & Ersoy, N. F. (2007). The determinants of competitive advantage and success factors of firms within the global competition. Marmara Üniversitesi İ.İ.B.F. Dergisi, 23(7), 223-237. google scholar
  77. Li, Y., Lai, K., & Feng, X. (2007). The problem of ‘Guanxi’ for actualizing community tourism: A case study of relationship networking in China. Tourism Geographies, 9(2), 115-138. google scholar
  78. Liargovas, P., & Skandalis, K. (2007). Factors affecting firm competitiveness: The case of Greek industry. Proceedings of LSE google scholar
  79. Lynch, P., & Morrison, A. (2007). The role of networks. in E. J. Michael (Ed.), Micro-clusters and networks: The growth of tourism (pp. 43-62).Oxford: Elsevier Ltd. google scholar
  80. Maldonado-Erazo, C. P., Rama, D. R., Noboa-Vinan, P., & Âlvarez Garrfa, J. (2020). Community-based tourism in Ecuador: Community ventures of the provincial and cantonal networks. Sustainability, 12(15), 1-30. google scholar
  81. Marshall, A. (1920). Principles of economics. Londra: Macmillan. google scholar
  82. Mazanec, J. A., Wober, K., & Zins, A. H. (2007). Tourism destination competitiveness: From definition to explanation? Journal of Travel Research, 46(1), 86-95. google scholar
  83. Mcgahan, A. M., & Porter, M. E. (1997). How much does industry matter, really?. Strategic Management Journal, 18(Summer Special Issue), 15-30. google scholar
  84. Michael, E., J. (2007). Micro-clusters and networks: The growth of tourism. Oxford: Elsevier Science Ltd. google scholar
  85. Michael, E. J., & Hall, M. C. (2007). A path for policy. in E. J. Michael (Ed.), Micro-clusters and networks: The growth of tourism (pp. 127-140).Oxford: Elsevier Ltd. google scholar
  86. Murphy, P. E. (1985). Tourism: A community approach. London & New York: Routledge. google scholar
  87. Murphy, P. E., & Murphy, A. E. (2004). Strategic management for tourism communities bridging the gaps. Clevedon, Buffalo, Toronto: Channel View Publications. google scholar
  88. Nordin, S. (2003). Tourism clustering & innovation - Paths to economic growth and development. Östersund, Sweden: European Tourism Research Institute. google scholar
  89. Novelli, M., Schmitz, B., & Spencer, T. (2006). Networks, clusters and innovation in tourism: A UK experience. Tourism Management, 27(6),1141-1152. google scholar
  90. Okazaki, E. (2008). A community-based tourism model: Its conception and use. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 16(5), 511-529. google scholar
  91. Othman, F., Sazali, F., & Mohamed, B. (2013). Rural and community-based tourism development in Malaysia: Prospects for homestays as a social economy enterprise. TEAM Journal of Hospitality and Tourism, 10(1), 65-76. google scholar
  92. Papatheodorou, A. (2004). Exploring the evolution of tourism resorts. Annals of Tourism Research, 31(1), 219-237. google scholar
  93. Perles Ribes, J., Rodriguez Sanchez, I., & Ramon-Rodriguez, A. B. (2017). Is a cluster a necessary condition for success? The case of Benidorm. Current Issues in Tourism, 20(15), 1575-1603. google scholar
  94. Polenske, K. (2004). Competition, collaboration and cooperation: An uneasy triangle in networks of firms and regions. Regional Studies, 38(9), 1029-1043. google scholar
  95. Poon, A. (1990). Flexible specialization and small size: The case of Caribbean tourism. World Development, 18(1), 109-123. google scholar
  96. Poon, A. (1994). Tourism, technology and competitive strategies. Wallingford: CABI. google scholar
  97. Poon, A. (2003). Competitive strategies for a new tourism. in C. Cooper (Ed.), Classic reviews in tourism (pp. 130-142). Clevedon, Buffalo, Toronto: Channel View Publications. google scholar
  98. Porter, M. E. (1980). Rekabet stratejisi: Sektör ve rakip analizi teknikleri. (G. Ulubilgen, translation) İstanbul: Aura Publication. google scholar
  99. Porter, M. E. (1990). The competitive advantage of nations. Harvard Business Review, March-April. google scholar
  100. Porter, M. E. (1998). Clusters and the new economics of competition. Harvard Business Review, November-December. google scholar
  101. Roberts, S., & Tribe, J. (2008). Sustainability indicators for small tourism enterprises - An exploratory perspective. Journal of Sustainable Tourism, 16(5), 575-594. google scholar
  102. Ross, J. W., Beath, C. M., & Goodhue, D. L. (1996). Develop long-term competitiveness through IT assets. Sloan Management Review, 38(1), 31-42. google scholar
  103. Santos, C., Almeida, A., & Teixeira, A. (2008). Searching for clusters in tourism. A quantitative methodological proposal. FEP Working Papers, 1-38. google scholar
  104. Schmalensee, R. (1985). Do markets differ much? American Economic Review, 75(3), 341-351. google scholar
  105. Schmitz, H. (1999). Global competition and local cooperation: Success and failure in the Sinos Valley, Brazil. World Development, 27(9), 1627-1650. google scholar
  106. Scott, N., Baggio, R., & Cooper, C. (2009). Network analysis and tourism: From theory to practice. Clevedon, UK: Channel View Publications. google scholar
  107. Sharma, M., Gupta, R., Sehrawat, R., Jain, K., & Dhir, A. (2023). The assessment of factors influencing big data adoption and firm performance: Evidences from emerging economy. Enterprise Information Systems, 1-29. google scholar
  108. Sigurdardottir, I., & Steinthorsson, R. S. (2018). Development of micro-clusters in tourism: A case of equestrian tourism in Northwest Iceland. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism, 18(3), 261-277. google scholar
  109. Stawasz, E. (2019). Factors that shape the competitiveness of small innovative companies operating in international markets with a particular focus on business advice. Journal of Entrepreneurship, Management and Innovation, 15(1), 61-82. google scholar
  110. Tolkach, D., King, B., & Pearlman, M. (2013). An attribute-based approach to classifying community-based tourism networks. Tourism Planning and Development, 10(3), 319-337. google scholar
  111. Tonny, L., & Robert, C. (2023). How social media marketing impacts the performance of star rated hotels. Journal of Business, Economics and Management Research Studies, 1(1), 25-32. google scholar
  112. Tosun, C. (2000). Limits to community participation in the tourism development process in developing countries. Tourism Management, 21(6), 613-633. google scholar
  113. Thomas, R., Shaw, G., & Page, J. S. (2011). Understanding small firms in tourism: A perspective on research trends and challenges. Tourism Management, 32(5), 963-976. google scholar
  114. Urano, D. G., & Nobrega, W. R. (2020). Community-based tourism and networks: An analysis of the collaborative relationships in the Tucum Network, Brazil. Podium Sport Leisure and Tourism Review, 9(3), 408-434. google scholar
  115. Wernerfelt, B. (1984). A resource-based view of the firm. Strategic Management Journal, 5(2), 171-180. google scholar
  116. Williamson, O. E. (1975) Markets and hierarchies: Analysis and antitrust implications. A study in the economics of internal organization, University of Illinois google scholar
  117. Wilkinson, I., & March, R. (2009). Conceptual tools for evaluating tourism partnerships. Tourism Management, 30(3), 455-462. google scholar
  118. Yanes, A., Zielinski, S., Diaz-Cano, M., & Kim, S. (2019). Community-based tourism in developing countries: A framework for policy evaluation. Sustainability, 11(9), 1-23. google scholar
  119. Yordam, S., & Düşmezkalender, E. (2019). Toplum temelli turizme kavramsal bir bakış. in Y. Atayeter (Ed.), 6th International Congress on Multidisciplinary Studies Conference Proceedings (pp. 229-237). Gaziantep. google scholar
  120. Yuhanis, A. A., Awang, K., & Saiton, Z. (2012). Challenges faced by micro, small, and medium lodgings in Kelantan, Malaysia. International Journal ofEconomics and Management, 6(1), 167 - 190. google scholar
  121. Cittaslow Organisation. (2019) Cittaslow Population Criteria. Retrieved from https://www.cittaslow.org/news/time-interested-about-us. 12.01.2019 google scholar
  122. European Commission. (2003). SME Definition. Retrieved from https://single-market-economy.ec.europa.eu/smes/sme-definition_en.01.05.2022 google scholar
  123. The International Institute for Management Development (IMD), (2022). World Competitiveness Ranking 2022. Retrieved from https://www.imd.org/centers/wcc/world-competitiveness-center/rankings/world-competitiveness-ranking/ 01.05.2023 google scholar
  124. Turkish Republic Culture and Tourism Ministry. (2019). Tourism Statistics. Retrieved from https://yigm.ktb.gov.tr/TR-9851/turizm-istatistikleri.html.12.03.2019 google scholar
  125. World Economic Forum (WEF), (2020). Global competitiveness report. Retrieved from https://www.weforum.org/reports/the-global-competitiveness-report-2020/ 01.05.2022 google scholar