SavedAdd your journal

Journals / Gazi Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Dergisi Part C: Tasarım ve Teknoloji / 2026 / Cilt: 14 Sayı: 2

Structural and Functional Variables of Unconventional 3D Printer Designs

Alışılmışın Dışında Üç Boyutlu Yazıcı Tasarımlarının Yapısal ve İşlevsel Değişkenleri

Cansu Kardaş(İstanbul Sağlık ve Teknoloji Üniversitesi)0000-0002-8652-3683
Hüseyin Rıza Börklü(GAZİ ÜNİVERSİTESİ, TEKNOLOJİ FAKÜLTESİ, ENDÜSTRİYEL TASARIM MÜHENDİSLİĞİ BÖLÜMÜ, ENDÜSTRİYEL TASARIM MÜHENDİSLİĞİ PR.)0000-0001-5104-9195
Pages
647–665
Publication Date
2026-06-30
🏛️Bibliographic metadata and full text access for this article are provided via DergiPark.
DergiPark Record ↗
✨

AI Summary & Key Takeaways

AI Insight
⚡ TL;DR(Too Long; Didn't Read)

The findings obtained are intended to guide future material and production technologies and serve as a source of inspiration for innovative product designs.

📌 3 Key Takeaways

🎯
Objective & Hypothesis:Developed in the late 20th century, 3D printing technologies have rapidly found widespread application, securing a significant position in numerous sectors ranging from prototype production to final product manufacturing.
📊
Key Findings & Data:In this study, 3D printer designs are classified into different categories based on material and application, and their structural and functional variables are examined in detail in light of current data in the literature.
💡
Conclusion & Impact:The findings obtained are intended to guide future material and production technologies and serve as a source of inspiration for innovative product designs.
🔬Design:Derleme
📍Scope:Comprehensive Sample
⚙️Variables:Katmanlı üretim · hızlı prototipleme · ürün geliştirme

Abstract

Developed in the late 20th century, 3D printing technologies have rapidly found widespread application, securing a significant position in numerous sectors ranging from prototype production to final product manufacturing. These devices, easily utilized by professional groups across diverse disciplines—primarily engineering and design, but extending from medicine to architecture—are radically transforming production processes. In addition to the most commonly used raw materials such as PLA (Polylactic Acid), ABS (Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene), and PETG (Polyethylene Terephthalate Glycol), systems capable of producing with a variety of other materials have also been developed. In this study, 3D printer designs are classified into different categories based on material and application, and their structural and functional variables are examined in detail in light of current data in the literature. The findings obtained are intended to guide future material and production technologies and serve as a source of inspiration for innovative product designs.

Özet

20. yüzyılın sonlarında geliştirilen üç boyutlu yazıcı teknolojileri, kısa süre içinde geniş bir kullanım alanı bularak prototip üretiminden nihai ürün imalatına kadar pek çok sektörde önemli bir yer edinmiştir. Başta mühendislik ve tasarım olmak üzere, tıptan mimarlığa kadar farklı disiplinlerde faaliyet gösteren meslek gruplarının rahatlıkla kullanabildiği bu cihazlar, üretim süreçlerini köklü biçimde dönüştürmektedir. En yaygın kullanılan hammaddeler olan PLA (polilaktik asit), ABS (Akrilonitril Bütadien Stiren) ve PETG (Polietilen Tereftalat Glikol) gibi malzemelerin dışında; farklı malzemelerle üretim yapılmasına olanak tanıyan sistemler de geliştirilmiştir. Bu çalışmada, üç boyutlu yazıcıların tasarımları, malzeme bazlı ve uygulama bazlı olacak şekilde farklı alanlara göre sınıflandırılarak, literatürdeki güncel veriler ışığında yapısal ve işlevsel değişkenleri ayrıntılı biçimde incelenmiştir. Elde edilen bulguların, gelecekte geliştirilecek yeni malzeme ve üretim teknolojilerine yön vermesi ve yenilikçi ürün tasarımlarına ilham kaynağı olması hedeflenmektedir.

🔖

Cite This Article

Kardaş, C., Börklü, H. R. (2026). Structural and Functional Variables of Unconventional 3D Printer Designs. Gazi Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Dergisi Part C: Tasarım ve Teknoloji, Cilt: 14 Sayı: 2, 647–665. https://doi.org/10.29109/gujsc.1837666

📄 Full Text PDF Viewer

📄

PDF görüntüleyici hazırlanıyor...

References (88)

  1. Kodama H. Automatic method for fabricating a three-dimensional plastic model with photo-hardening polymer. Review of Scientific Instruments, 52(1770-1773), (1981). 10.1063/1.1136492
  2. Ligon S. C., Liska R., Stampfl J., Gurr M. and Mülhaupt R. Polymers for 3D printing and customized additive manufacturing. Chemical Reviews, 117(10212-10290), (2017). DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.7b00074
  3. Hull C., Feygin M., Baron Y., Sanders R., Sachs E., Lightman A. and Wohlers T. Rapid prototyping: current technology and future potential. Rapid Prototyping Journal, 1(11-19), (1995). DOI: 10.1108/13552549510732026
  4. Hull C. W. The birth of 3D printing. Research-Technology Management, 58(25-30), (2015). DOI: 10.5437/08956308X5806067
  5. Deckard C. R. (1988). Selective Laser Sintering, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, 1-120.
  6. Groth C., Kravitz N. D., Jones P. E., Graham J. W. and Redmond W. R. Three-dimensional printing technology. J Clin Orthod, 48(475-485), (2014).
  7. Siemiński P. (2021). Introduction to fused deposition modeling. In Additive Manufacturing, Elsevier, (217-275). DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-818411-0.00008-2
  8. Hiemenz J. 3D printing with FDM: How it Works. Stratasys Inc, 1(1-5), (2011).
  9. Gibson I., Rosen D., Stucker B., Khorasani M., Gibson I., Rosen D. and Khorasani M. Binder jetting. Additive Manufacturing Technologies, (237-252), (2021).
  10. Shellabear M. and Nyrhilä O. DMLS-Development history and state of the art. Laser Assisted Net Shape Engineering 4, Proceedings of the 4th LANE, (21-24), (2004).
  11. Sachs E., Cima M., Cornie J., Brancazio D., Bredt J., Curodeau A. and Michaels S. Three-dimensional printing: the physics and implications of additive manufacturing. CIRP Annals, 42(257-260), (1993). DOI: 10.1016/S0007-8506(07)62438-X
  12. Jones R., Haufe P., Sells E., Iravani P., Olliver V., Palmer C. and Bowyer A. RepRap–the replicating rapid prototyper. Robotica, 29(177-191), (2011). DOI: 10.1017/S026357471000069X
  13. Sells E., Bailard S., Smith Z., Bowyer A. and Olliver V. (2010). RepRap: the replicating rapid prototyper: maximizing customizability by breeding the means of production. In Handbook of Research in Mass Customization and Personalization: (In 2 Volumes), 568-580. DOI: 10.1142/9789814280280_0028
  14. Rosso S., Meneghello R., Biasetto L., Grigolato L., Concheri G. and Savio G. In-depth comparison of polyamide 12 parts manufactured by Multi Jet Fusion and Selective Laser Sintering. Additive Manufacturing, 36(101713), (2020). DOI: 10.1016/j.addma.2020.101713
  15. Yap C. Y., Chua C. K., Dong Z. L., Liu Z. H., Zhang D. Q., Loh L. E. and Sing S. L. Review of selective laser melting: Materials and applications. Applied Physics Reviews, 2(4), (2015). DOI: 10.1063/1.4935926
  16. Weller C., Kleer R. and Piller F. T. Economic implications of 3D printing: Market structure models in light of additive manufacturing revisited. International Journal of Production Economics, 164(43-56), (2015). DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpe.2015.02.020
  17. Ge, Q., Sakhaei, A. H., Lee, H., Dunn, C. K., Fang, N. X., & Dunn, M. L. Multimaterial 4D printing with tailorable shape memory polymers. Scientific reports, 6(1), 31110, (2016).
  18. Rivera‐Tarazona, L. K., Shukla, T., Singh, K. A., Gaharwar, A. K., Campbell, Z. T., & Ware, T. H. 4D printing of engineered living materials. Advanced Functional Materials, 32(4), 2106843, (2022). DOI: 10.1002/adfm.202106843
  19. Shahrubudin N., Lee T. C. and Ramlan R. J. P. M. An overview on 3D printing technology: Technological, materials, and applications. Procedia Manufacturing, 35(1286-1296), (2019). DOI: 10.1016/j.promfg.2019.06.089
  20. Choi J. W. and Kim H. C. 3D printing technologies-a review. Journal of the Korean Society of Manufacturing Process Engineers, 14(1-8), (2015).
  21. Mpofu, T.P.; Mawere, C.; Mukosera, M. The Impact and Application of 3D Printing Technology. Int. J. Sci. Res. (IJSR), 02014675, (2148–2152), (2014).
  22. Thakar, C. M., Parkhe, S. S., Jain, A., Phasinam, K., Murugesan, G., & Ventayen, R. J. M. 3d Printing: Basic principles and applications. Materials Today: Proceedings, 51(842-849), (2022). DOI: 10.1016/j.matpr.2021.06.272
  23. Jandyal, A., Chaturvedi, I., Wazir, I., Raina, A., & Haq, M. I. U. 3D printing–A review of processes, materials and applications in industry 4.0. Sustainable Operations and Computers, 3(33-42), (2022). DOI: 10.1016/j.susoc.2021.09.004
  24. Popescu, D., Zapciu, A., Amza, C., Baciu, F., & Marinescu, R. FDM process parameters influence over the mechanical properties of polymer specimens: A review. Polymer Testing, 69(157-166), (2018). DOI: 10.1016/j.polymertesting.2018.05.020
  25. De Sampaio, C. P., Spinosa, R. D. O., Tsukahara, D. Y., da Silva, J. C., Borghi, S. L. S., Rostirolla, F., & Vicentin, J. 3D printing in graphic design education: Educational experiences using Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) in a Brazilian university. In Proc. 6th Int. Conf. Adv. Res. Virtual Rapid Prototyp., Leiria, Portugal (pp. 25-30), (2013, September).
  26. Maines, E. M., Porwal, M. K., Ellison, C. J., & Reineke, T. M. Sustainable advances in SLA/DLP 3D printing materials and processes. Green Chemistry, 23(18), (6863-6897), (2021).
  27. Finnes, T. High definition 3d printing–comparing sla and fdm printing technologies. The Journal of Undergraduate Research, 13(1), 3, (2015).
  28. Lakkala, P., Munnangi, S. R., Bandari, S., & Repka, M. (Additive manufacturing technologies with emphasis on stereolithography 3D printing in pharmaceutical and medical applications: A review. International journal of pharmaceutics: X, 5, 100159, (2023). DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpx.2023.100159
  29. Fina, F., Goyanes, A., Gaisford, S., & Basit, A. W. Selective laser sintering (SLS) 3D printing of medicines. International journal of pharmaceutics, 529(1-2), 285-293, (2017). DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2017.06.082
  30. Cai, C., Tey, W. S., Chen, J., Zhu, W., Liu, X., Liu, T.,. & Zhou, K. Comparative study on 3D printing of polyamide 12 by selective laser sintering and multi jet fusion. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 288, 116882, (2021). DOI: 10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2020.116882
  31. Tagliaferri, V., Trovalusci, F., Guarino, S., & Venettacci, S. Environmental and economic analysis of FDM, SLS and MJF additive manufacturing technologies. Materials, 12(24), 4161, (2019). DOI: 10.3390/ma12244161.
  32. Ziaee, M., & Crane, N. B. Binder jetting: A review of process, materials, and methods. Additive Manufacturing, 28, 781-801, (2019). DOI: 10.1016/j.addma.2019.05.031.
  33. Gibson, I., Rosen, D., Stucker, B., Khorasani, M., Gibson, I., Rosen, D.,. & Khorasani, M. (2021). Binder jetting. Additive manufacturing technologies, (237-252).
  34. Anand, M., & Das, A. K. Issues in fabrication of 3D components through DMLS Technique: A review. Optics & Laser Technology, 139, 106914, (2021). DOI: 10.1016/j.optlastec.2021.106914
  35. Tee, Y. L., Peng, C., Pille, P., Leary, M., & Tran, P. PolyJet 3D printing of composite materials: experimental and modelling approach. Jom, 72, (1105-1117), (2020).
  36. Luong, D. X., Subramanian, A. K., Silva, G. A. L., Yoon, J., Cofer, S., Yang, K.,. & Tour, J. M. Laminated object manufacturing of 3D‐printed laser‐induced graphene foams. Advanced Materials, 30(28), (2018). DOI: 10.1002/adma.201707416
  37. Li, Y., Ren, X., Zhu, L., & Li, C. Biomass 3D printing: principles, materials, post-processing and applications. Polymers, 15(12), (2023). DOI: 10.3390/polym15122692
  38. Siddika, A., Mamun, M. A. A., Ferdous, W., Saha, A. K., & Alyousef, R. 3D-printed concrete: Applications, performance, and challenges. Journal of Sustainable Cement-Based Materials, 9(3), (127-164), (2020). DOI: 10.1080/21650373.2019.1705199
  39. Xiao, J., Ji, G., Zhang, Y., Ma, G., Mechtcherine, V., Pan, J.,. & Du, S. (Large-scale 3D printing concrete technology: Current status and future opportunities. Cement and Concrete Composites, (122), (2021). DOI: 10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2021.104115
  40. Zhang, J., Wang, J., Dong, S., Yu, X., & Han, B. A review of the current progress and application of 3D printed concrete. Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing, (125), (2019), DOI: 10.1016/j.compositesa.2019.105533
  41. Mohan, M. K., Rahul, A. V., De Schutter, G., & Van Tittelboom, K. Extrusion-based concrete 3D printing from a material perspective: A state-of-the-art review. Cement and Concrete Composites, (115), (2021), DOI: 10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2020.103855
  42. Salet, T. A., Ahmed, Z. Y., Bos, F. P., & Laagland, H. L. Design of a 3D printed concrete bridge by testing. Virtual and Physical Prototyping, 13(3), 222-236.(2018). DOI: 10.1080/17452759.2018.1476064.
  43. De Schutter, G., Lesage, K., Mechtcherine, V., Nerella, V. N., Habert, G., & Agusti-Juan, I. (2018). Vision of 3D printing with concrete—Technical, economic and environmental potentials. Cement and Concrete Research, 112, (25-36), (2018). DOI: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2018.06.001
  44. Özalp, F., Yılmaz, H. D., & Yaşar, Ş. 3D YAZICI TEKNOLOJİSİNE UYGUN SÜRDÜRÜLEBİLİR VE YENİLİKÇİ BETONLARIN GELİŞTİRİLMESİ. Hazır Beton, (62-70), (2018).
  45. Roussel, N., Geiker, M. R., Dufour, F., Thrane, L. N., & Szabo, P. Computational modeling of concrete flow: General overview. Cement and Concrete research, 37(9), (1298-1307), (2007). DOI: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2007.06.007
  46. Anell, Lars Henrik. "Concrete 3d printer." Lund University, Sweden (2015).
  47. Jo, J. H., Jo, B. W., Cho, W., & Kim, J. H. Development of a 3D printer for concrete structures: laboratory testing of cementitious materials. International Journal of Concrete Structures and Materials, 14, (1-11), (2020). DOI: 10.1186/s40069-019-0388-2
  48. Le, T. T., Austin, S. A., Lim, S., Buswell, R. A., Law, R., Gibb, A. G., & Thorpe, T. Hardened properties of high-performance printing concrete. Cement and concrete research, 42(3), (558-566), (2012). DOI: 10.1016/j.cemconres.2011.12.003
  49. Malaeb, Z., Hachem, H., Tourbah, A., Maalouf, T., El Zarwi, N., & Hamzeh, F. 3D Concrete printing: Machine and mix design. International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology, 6(6), (14–22), (2015). DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-815481-6.00006-3
  50. Heinze, T. Cellulose: structure and properties. Cellulose chemistry and properties: fibers, nanocelluloses and advanced materials, (1-52), (2016).
  51. Li, V. C. F., Dunn, C. K., Zhang, Z., Deng, Y., & Qi, H. J. Direct ink write (DIW) 3D printed cellulose nanocrystal aerogel structures. Scientific reports, 7(1), 8018, (2017). DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-07771-y
  52. Lee, C. S., Kim, S. G., Kim, H. J., & Ahn, S. H. Measurement of anisotropic compressive strength of rapid prototyping parts. Journal of materials processing technology, 187, (627-630), (2007). DOI: 10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2006.11.095
  53. Feng, X., Yang, Z., Wang, S., & Wu, Z. (2022). The reinforcing effect of lignin‐containing cellulose nanofibrils in the methacrylate composites produced by stereolithography. Polymer Engineering & Science, 62(9), (2968-2976), DOI: 10.1002/pen.26077
  54. Hickey, R. J., & Pelling, A. E. Cellulose biomaterials for tissue engineering. Frontiers in bioengineering and biotechnology, 7, 45, (2019). DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2019.00045
  55. Chen, L., Zhang, Y., Chen, Z., Dong, Y., Jiang, Y., Hua, J.,. & Yap, P. S. Biomaterials technology and policies in the building sector: a review. Environmental Chemistry Letters, 22(2), (715-750), (2024).
  56. Pattinson, S. W., & Hart, A. J. Additive manufacturing of cellulosic materials with robust mechanics and antimicrobial functionality. Advanced Materials Technologies, 2(4), (2017). DOI: 10.1002/admt.201600084
  57. Hu, X., Yang, Z., Kang, S., Jiang, M., Zhou, Z., Gou, J.,. & He, J. Cellulose hydrogel skeleton by extrusion 3D printing of solution. Nanotechnology Reviews, 9(1), (345-353), (2020).
  58. Langer, R., & Vacanti, J. Advances in tissue engineering. Journal of pediatric surgery, 51(1), (8-12), (2016). DOI: 10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2015.10.022
  59. Özmen, E., & Ertek, C. (Eklemeli İmalat Teknolojilerinde Kullanılan Biyomalzemeler ve Biyomedikal Uygulamaları. Gazi Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Dergisi Part C: Tasarım ve Teknoloji, 10(4), (733-747), (2022). DOI: 10.29109/gujsc.1150799
  60. Kim, J. S., Hong, S., & Hwang, C. Bio-ink Materials for 3D Bio-printing. Journal of International Society for Simulation Surgery, 3(2), (49-59), (2016). DOI: 10.18204/JISSiS.2016.3.2.049
  61. Arai, K., Murata, D., Verissimo, A. R., Mukae, Y., Itoh, M., Nakamura, A.,. & Nakayama, K. Fabrication of scaffold-free tubular cardiac constructs using a Bio-3D printer. PloS one, 13(12), (2018). DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0209162.
  62. Ninomiya, K., & Taniuchi, T. Assembly of a tumor microtissue by stacking normal and cancer spheroids on Kenzan using a bio-3D printer to monitor dynamic cancer cell invasion in the microtissue. Biochemical Engineering Journal, 212, (2024). DOI: 10.1016/j.bej.2024.109536
  63. Reisecker, V., Winkler, R., & Plank, H. A review on direct‐write nanoprinting of functional 3D structures with focused electron beams. Advanced Functional Materials, 34(46), (2024). DOI: 10.1002/adfm.202407567
  64. Liu, B., Liu, S., Devaraj, V., Yin, Y., Zhang, Y., Ai, J.,. & Feng, J. Metal 3D nanoprinting with coupled fields. Nature Communications, 14(1), 4920. (2023).
  65. Chen, Z., Li, Z., Li, J., Liu, C., Lao, C., Fu, Y.,. & He, Y. 3D printing of ceramics: A review. Journal of the European Ceramic Society, 39(4), (661-687), (2019). DOI: 10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2018.11.013
  66. Spina, R., & Morfini, L. Material extrusion additive manufacturing of ceramics: A review on filament-based process. Materials, 17(11), (2024). DOI:10.3390/ma17112779
  67. Xin, C., Li, Z., Hao, L., & Li, Y. A comprehensive review on additive manufacturing of glass: Recent progress and future outlook. Materials & Design, (227), (2023). DOI: 10.1016/j.matdes.2023.111736
  68. Shaw, M., Vlahopoulos, D., Usma-Mansfield, C., Sarmiento, J., Snooks, R., Koutsonikolas, T., & Birbilis, N. The Additive Manufacturing of Glass: A Critical Review. 15(6), (2025). DOI: 10.3390/app15063414
  69. Neamah, H. A., & Tandio, J. Towards the development of foods 3D printer: Trends and technologies for foods printing. Heliyon. 0(13), (2024).
  70. Pérez, B., Nykvist, H., Brøgger, A. F., Larsen, M. B., & Falkeborg, M. F. Impact of macronutrients printability and 3D-printer parameters on 3D-food printing: A review. Food chemistry, 287, (249-257), (2019). DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2019.02.090
  71. Liu, Z., Zhang, M., Bhandari, B., & Wang, Y. 3D printing: Printing precision and application in food sector. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 69, (83-94), (2017). DOI: 10.1016/j.tifs.2017.08.018
  72. Hao, L., Li, Y., Gong, P., & Xiong, W. Material, process and business development for 3D chocolate printing. In Fundamentals of 3D food printing and applications, Academic Press, (pp. 207-255), (2019). DOI: 10.1016/B978-0-12-814564-7.00008-0
  73. Tan, C., Toh, W. Y., Wong, G., & Li, L. Extrusion-based 3D food printing–Materials and machines. International Journal of Bioprinting, 4(2), 143, (2018). DOI: 10.18063/IJB.v4i2.143
  74. Manaia, J. P., Cerejo, F., & Duarte, J. Revolutionising textile manufacturing: a comprehensive review on 3D and 4D printing technologies. Fashion and Textiles, 10(1), 20, (2023).
  75. Chatterjee, K., & Ghosh, T. K. 3D printing of textiles: Potential roadmap to printing with fibers. Adv. Mater., 32, (2020). DOI: 10.1002/adma.201902086
  76. Xu, W., Zhu, Y., Ravichandran, D., Jambhulkar, S., Kakarla, M., Bawareth, M., Lanke, S., & Song, K. Review of fiber-based threedimensional printing for applications ranging from nanoscale nanoparticle alignment to macroscale patterning. ACS Appl. Nano Mater., 4, (7538–7562), (2021). DOI: 10.1021/acsanm.1c01408
  77. Korger, M., Bergschneider, J., Lutz, M., Mahltig, B., Finsterbusch, K., & Rabe, M. Possible applications of 3D printing technology on textile substrates. In IOP conference series: materials science and engineering (Vol. 141, No. 1, p. 012011). IOP Publishing, (2016, July). DOI: 10.1088/1757-899X/141/1/012011
  78. Spahiu, T., Canaj, E., & Shehi, E. 3D printing for clothing production. Journal of Engineered Fibers and Fabrics, 15, (2020). DOI: 10.1177/1558925020948216
  79. Gao, T., Zhou, Z., Yu, J., Zhao, J., Wang, G., Cao, D., Ding, B., & Li, Y. 3D printing of tunable energy storage devices with both high areal and volumetric energy densities. Adv. Energy Mater., 9, (2019). DOI: 10.1002/aenm.201802578
  80. Cai, C., Tey, W. S., Chen, J., Zhu, W., Liu, X., Liu, T.,. & Zhou, K. Comparative study on 3D printing of polyamide 12 by selective laser sintering and multi jet fusion. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 288, 116882, (2021). DOI: 10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2020.116882
  81. Gibson, I., Rosen, D., Stucker, B., Khorasani, M., Gibson, I., Rosen, D.,. & Khorasani, M. (2021). Binder jetting. Additive manufacturing technologies, (237-252).
  82. Luong, D. X., Subramanian, A. K., Silva, G. A. L., Yoon, J., Cofer, S., Yang, K.,. & Tour, J. M. Laminated object manufacturing of 3D‐printed laser‐induced graphene foams. Advanced Materials, 30(28), (2018). DOI: 10.1002/adma.201707416
  83. Xiao, J., Ji, G., Zhang, Y., Ma, G., Mechtcherine, V., Pan, J.,. & Du, S. (Large-scale 3D printing concrete technology: Current status and future opportunities. Cement and Concrete Composites, (122), (2021). DOI: 10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2021.104115
  84. Chen, L., Zhang, Y., Chen, Z., Dong, Y., Jiang, Y., Hua, J.,. & Yap, P. S. Biomaterials technology and policies in the building sector: a review. Environmental Chemistry Letters, 22(2), (715-750), (2024).
  85. Hu, X., Yang, Z., Kang, S., Jiang, M., Zhou, Z., Gou, J.,. & He, J. Cellulose hydrogel skeleton by extrusion 3D printing of solution. Nanotechnology Reviews, 9(1), (345-353), (2020).
  86. Arai, K., Murata, D., Verissimo, A. R., Mukae, Y., Itoh, M., Nakamura, A.,. & Nakayama, K. Fabrication of scaffold-free tubular cardiac constructs using a Bio-3D printer. PloS one, 13(12), (2018). DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0209162.
  87. Liu, B., Liu, S., Devaraj, V., Yin, Y., Zhang, Y., Ai, J.,. & Feng, J. Metal 3D nanoprinting with coupled fields. Nature Communications, 14(1), 4920. (2023).
  88. Chen, Z., Li, Z., Li, J., Liu, C., Lao, C., Fu, Y.,. & He, Y. 3D printing of ceramics: A review. Journal of the European Ceramic Society, 39(4), (661-687), (2019). DOI: 10.1016/j.jeurceramsoc.2018.11.013