SavedAdd your journal

Journals / Akademik Gıda / 2025 / Cilt: 23 Sayı: 4

Physicochemical and Toxicological Changes in Foods and Frying Oils during Deep-Frying

Derin Yağda Kızartma Sırasında Gıdalar ve Kızartma Yağlarındaki Fizikokimyasal ve Toksikolojik Değişimler

Mustafa Yıldız(Istanbul Sabahattin Zaim University, Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Department of Food Engineering)0000-0002-8232-5655
Melike Ciniviz(Bursa Uludag University, Faculty of Agriculture, Department of Food Engineering)0000-0001-6089-1659
Pages
291–301
Publication Date
2025-12-31
🏛️Bibliographic metadata and full text access for this article are provided via DergiPark.
DergiPark Record ↗
✨

AI Summary & Key Takeaways

AI Insight
⚡ TL;DR(Too Long; Didn't Read)

Furthermore, it was aimed to increase consumer awareness about the possible health risks arising from excessive consumption of fried foods.

📌 3 Key Takeaways

🎯
Objective & Hypothesis:Deep frying is one of the most common processes used in food preparation to improve aroma, taste, crispness, and flavor characteristics.
📊
Key Findings & Data:However, the simultaneous Maillard reactions, caramelization, and thermal decomposition of sugars occurring in the food and oil phases during frying, along with oxidation, hydrolysis, and polymerization processes in the oil, may trigger the formation of certain heat treatment contaminants, primarily acrylamide, nutritional losses in heat-sensitive components, increased energy density due to oil intake, and sensory quality defects (burnt/stale taste/odor, irregularities in texture and crispness).
💡
Conclusion & Impact:Furthermore, it was aimed to increase consumer awareness about the possible health risks arising from excessive consumption of fried foods.
🔬Design:Review & Systematic Survey
📍Scope:Comprehensive Sample
⚙️Variables:Derin kızartma · Akrilamid · Lipit oksidasyonu

Abstract

Deep frying is one of the most common processes used in food preparation to improve aroma, taste, crispness, and flavor characteristics. However, the simultaneous Maillard reactions, caramelization, and thermal decomposition of sugars occurring in the food and oil phases during frying, along with oxidation, hydrolysis, and polymerization processes in the oil, may trigger the formation of certain heat treatment contaminants, primarily acrylamide, nutritional losses in heat-sensitive components, increased energy density due to oil intake, and sensory quality defects (burnt/stale taste/odor, irregularities in texture and crispness). In addition, the gradual accumulation of total polar compounds (TPC/TPM) in frying oil, the increase in volatile oxidation products, and physical quality shifts such as increased viscosity, darkening of color, and a decrease in foaming and smoke points, limit the shelf life of the oil; make process control more difficult through fluctuations in heat transfer and cooking kinetics; weaken product standardization; and ultimately create a more negative risk profile in terms of food safety. Toxic compounds such as acrylamide and acrolein, which are formed as a result of polymerization, especially during frying, cause diseases such as cardiovascular disease, Alzheimer’s disease, diabetes, and tumors. In this review, the physical, chemical, and nutritional changes occurring in the food-oil system during deep frying and their effects on human health were evaluated with the guidance of studies in the literature. The focus of the study was to consider all parameters (oil-food and other factors) together in the frying system. In addition, application suggestions were presented that could preserve food quality and pose the least risk in terms of health and nutrition during the frying process. Furthermore, it was aimed to increase consumer awareness about the possible health risks arising from excessive consumption of fried foods.

Özet

Derin kızartma işlemi gıdaların hazırlanmasında, aroma, tat, gevreklik ve lezzet özelliklerinin geliştirilmesinde kullanılan en yaygın işlemlerden biridir. Ancak kızartma sırasında gıda ve yağ fazında eş zamanlı ilerleyen Maillard reaksiyonları, karamelizasyon ve şekerlerin termal bozunması ile yağda görülen oksidasyon, hidroliz ve polimerizasyon süreçleri; gıdada akrilamid başta olmak üzere bazı ısıl işlem kontaminantlarının oluşumunu, ısıya duyarlı bileşenlerde besinsel kayıpları, yağ alımına bağlı enerji yoğunluğunun artmasını ve duyusal kalite kusurlarını (yanık/bayat tat-koku, doku ve gevreklikte düzensizlik) tetikleyebilmektedir. Buna eşlik eden şekilde kızartma yağında toplam polar bileşiklerin (TPC/TPM) kademeli birikimi, uçucu oksidasyon ürünlerinin artışı ve viskozite yükselmesi, renk koyulaşması, köpürme ile dumanlanma noktasında düşüş gibi fiziksel kalite kaymaları yağın kullanım ömrünü sınırlandırmakta; ısı transferi ve pişme kinetiğindeki dalgalanmalar üzerinden proses kontrolünü güçleştirerek ürün standardizasyonunu zayıflatmakta ve nihayetinde gıda güvenliği açısından daha olumsuz bir risk profiline zemin hazırlamaktadır. Özellikle kızartma sırasında polimerizasyon sonucu oluşan akrilamid ve akrolein gibi toksik bileşikler kardiyovasküler, Alzheimer, diyabet, ve tümör gibi hastalıkların oluşumuna sebep olmaktadır. Bu çalışmada, derin kızartma sırasında gıda-yağ sisteminde meydana gelen fiziksel, kimyasal, besinsel değişiklikleri ve insan sağlığı üzerine olan etkileri literatürdeki çalışmalar rehberliğinde değerlendirilmiştir. Kızartma sisteminde tüm parametrelerin (yağ-gıda ve diğer faktörler) birlikte ele alınması çalışmanın odağını oluşturmuştur. Bununla birlikte kızartma işleminde gıda kalitesini koruyan, sağlık ve beslenme bakımından en az risk oluşturacak uygulama önerileri sunulmuştur. Ayrıca kızartılmış gıdaların aşırı tüketiminden kaynaklanan olası sağlık riskleri konusunda tüketici farkındalığının artırılması amaçlanmıştır.

🔖

Cite This Article

Yıldız, M., Ciniviz, M. (2025). Physicochemical and Toxicological Changes in Foods and Frying Oils during Deep-Frying. Akademik Gıda, Cilt: 23 Sayı: 4, 291–301. https://doi.org/10.24323/akademik-gida.1852845

📄 Full Text PDF Viewer

📄

PDF görüntüleyici hazırlanıyor...

References (108)

  1. Wang, X., Mc Clements, DJ., Xu, Z., Meng, M., Qiu, C., Long, J., Jin, Z., Chen, L. (2023). Recent advances in the optimization of the sensory attributes of fried foods: appearance, flavor, and texture. Trends Food Science Technology, (138), 297-309.
  2. Alım, H. (1978). Deep fat frying and oxidative changes in frying oil. GIDA, 3 (6), 233-236.
  3. Celik, G. (2020). Determination of process pollutants in deep fat frying. Doctoral Dissertation, Bursa Uludag University, Türkiye [in Turkish].
  4. Millin, T., Medina‐Meza, I., Walters, B., Huber, K., Rasco, B., Ganjyal, G. (2016). Frying oil temperature: impact on physical and structural properties of french fries during the par and finish frying processes. Food and Bioprocess Technology, 9(12), 2080-2091.
  5. Abrante-Pascual, S., Nieva-Echevarría, B., Goicoechea-Oses, E. (2024). Vegetable oils and their use for frying: a review of their compositional differences and degradation. Foods, 13, 4186. [6] Hosseine, H., Ghorbani, M., Meshginfar, N., Mahoonak, A. S. (2016). A review on frying: procedure, fat, deterioration progress and health hazards. Journal of American Oil Chemists’ Society, 93(4), 445-446.
  6. Agagunduz, D. (2020). Polar substances formed in frying oils: formation mechanisms and health effects. Gazi University Faculty of Health Sciences, 51 [in Turkish].
  7. Sahin, K., Bilici, S. (2024). Thermal process pollutants formed by frying and their health effects. Journal of Agricultural Faculty of Bursa Uludag University, 38(1), s. 283-300, 4. [in Turkish].
  8. Bordin, K., Tomihe Kunitake, M., Kazue Aracava, K., Silvia Favaro Trindade, C. (2013). Changes in food caused by deep fat frying-A review. Archivos Latino Americanos De Nutricion, 63(1), 5-13.
  9. Zhang, Y., Zhang, T., Fan, D., Li, J., Fan, L. (2018). The description of oil absorption behaviour of potato chips during the frying. LWT, 96, 119-126.
  10. Dur´an, M., Pedreschi, F., Moyano, P., Troncoso, E. (2007). Oil partition in pretreated potato slices during frying and cooling. Journal of Food Engineering, 81, 257-265.
  11. Devi, S., Zhang, M., Ju, R., Bhandari, B. (2021). Recent development of innovative methods for efficient frying technology, Critical Reviews in hazards. Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society, 93(4), 445–466.
  12. Li, X., Li, J., Wang, Y., Cao, P., Liu, Y. (2017). Effects of frying oils’ fatty acids Profile on the formation of polar lipids components and their retention in French fries over deep-frying process. Food Chemistry, 237, 98-105.
  13. Bouchon, P., Aguilera, J. M., Pyle, D. (2003). Structure oil-absorption relationships during deep-fat frying. Journal of Food Science, 68 (9), 2711–2716.
  14. Li, P., Wu, G., Yang, D., Zhang, H., Qi, X., Jin, Q., Wang, X. (2020). Effect of multistage process on the quality, water and oil distribution and microstructure of French fries. Food Research International, 137, 109229.
  15. Ran, X., Lin, D., Zheng, L., Li, Y., Yang, H. (2023). Kinetic modelling of the mass and heat transfer of a plant‐based fishball alternative during deep‐fat frying and air frying and the changes in physicochemical properties. Journal of Food Engineering, 350, 111457.
  16. Ozkaynak, E., Ova, G. (2006). Acrylamide – a significant contaminant in foods. Academic Gıda, 3, 19-23. [in Turkish].
  17. Karakul, D. (2006). Research on the effect of pre-soaking potatoes on acrylamide formation in fried products. Master's Thesis, Hacettepe University, Department of Food Engineering, Ankara. [in Turkish].
  18. Mottram, D. S., Wedzicha, B. L., Dodson, A.T. (2002). Acrylamide is formed in the Maillard reaction, Natura, 419-449.
  19. Zyzak, D. V., Sanders, R. A., Stojanovic, M., Tallmadge, D. H., Eberhart, B. L., Elwald, D. K., Gruber, D. C., Morsch, T. R. Strothers, M. A., Rızzı, G. P. Villagran, M. D. (2003). Acrylamide formation mechanism in heated foods. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 51(6), 4782-4787.
  20. Gokmen, V., Senyuva, H. Z. (2006). Study of colour and acrylamide formation in coffee, wheat flour and potato chips during heating. Food Chemistry, 99, 238–243 [in Turkish].
  21. Eriksson, S. (2005). Acrlamide in Food products: Identification, formation and analytical methodology. Ph.D Thesis. Stockholm, Sweden.
  22. Can, N. Ö. (2007). Investigation of factors affecting the formation of acrylamide in foodstuffs and determination of their amounts. PhD Thesis. Anadolu University, Institute of Health Sciences, Department of Analytical Chemistry, Eskişehir.
  23. Yaylayan, V. A., Stadler, R. H. (2005). Acrylamide formation in food: A mechanistic perspective. Journal of AOAC International, 88(1), 262-267.
  24. Aktas, R. K. (2008). Determination of acrylamide in rusks by HPLC-MS method. Master's Thesis, Gazi University, Institute of Science, Department of Chemistry, Ankara [in Turkish].
  25. Gertz, C., Klostermann, S. (2002). Analysis of acrylamide and mechanisms of its formation in deep-fried products. European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology, 104, 762-771.
  26. Nizamlıoglu. N. M, Nas, S. (2019). Acrylamide formation mechanisms in foods, acrylamide content of foods and their effects on health. Akademik Gıda, 17(2), 232-242 [in Turkish].
  27. Hee, P. T. E., Liang, Z., Zhang, P., Fang, Z. (2024). Formation mechanisms, detection methods and mitigation strategies of acrylamide, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and heterocyclic amines in food products. Food Control, 158, 110236.
  28. Lee, J. S., Han, J. W., Jung, M., Lee, K. W., Chung, M. S. (2020). Effects of thawing and frying methods on the formation of acrylamide and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in chicken meat. Foods, 9(5), 573.
  29. Becalski, A., Lau, B. P. Y., Lewis, D., Seaman, S. W. (2003). Acrilinide in foods: occurrence sources, and modeling. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 51, 802-808.
  30. Taubert, D., Harlfinger, S., Henkes, L., Berkels, R., Schömig, E. (2004). Influence of processing parameters on acrylamide formation during frying of potatoes. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 5, 52(9), 2735-9.
  31. Capar, T. D. (2014). Effects of drying processes applied to potatoes before frying on potato and frying oil quality. Master's Thesis, Erciyes University, Institute of Science [in Turkish].
  32. Quasmi, M. N., Kumar, D., Jangra, A. (2025). Effects of dietary acrylamide on kidney and liver health: Molecular mechanisms and pharmacological implications. Toxicology Reports, 14, 101859.
  33. Devseren, E., Dilara Tomruk, D., Koç, M., Kaymak, E.F. (2016). Vakum altında kızartma işleminin gıda ve kızartma yağı kalitesi üzerine etkisi. Akademik Gıda, 14(1), 43-53
  34. Park, J. S., Samanta, P., Lee, S, Lee, J., Cho, J. W., Chun, H. S., Yoon, S., Kim, W. K. (2021). Developmental and neurotoxicity of acrylamide to zebrafish. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 22(7), 3518.
  35. Cahill, L. E., Pan, A., Chiuve, S. E., Sun, Q., Willett, W. C., Hu, F. B., Rimm, E. B. (2014). Fried-food consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes and coronary artery disease: a prospective study in 2 cohorts of US women and men1234. The American journal of clinical nutrition, 100(2), 667-675.
  36. Boyacı, C. P., Cengiz, M. F. (2012). Gıdalarda akrilamid risk değerlendirme çalışmaları. Gıda, 37(5), 287-294.
  37. Lyon, F. (1994). IARC monographs on the evaluation of carcinogenic risks to humans. Some Industrial Chemicals, 60, 389-433.
  38. Sayaslan, A., Kaya, C., Yıldız, M., Oguz, A. (2008). Determination of acrylamide contents of roasted corn, wheat, and chickpea snacks. TC Gaziosmanpaşa University, Scientific Research Projects Commission, Tokat [in Turkish].
  39. Cennet, P., Cengiz, F. M. (2012). Acrylamide risk assessment studies in foods, Gıda, 37 (5): 287-294 [in Turkish].
  40. Akgun, B., Arıcı, M., (2018). Acrylamide, toxicity reduction techniques and analysis methods. Journal of Food and Feed Science, 2, 12–21 [in Turkish].
  41. Altay, E., (2020) Acrylamide formation in foods, food and agriculture. Journal of Laboratory Techniques and Technologies [in Turkish].
  42. Arusoglu, G., (2015). Acrylamide formation and its effects on human health. Akademik Gıda,13(1), 61-71 [in Turkish].
  43. Dong, H., Gill, S., Curran, I. H., Williams, A., Kuo, B., Wade, M. G., Yauk, C. L. (2016). Toxicogenomic assessment of liver responses following subchronic exposure to furan in Fischer F344 rats. Archives of Toxicology, 90(6), 1351-1367.
  44. Goncuoglu, N., Gokmen, V. (2013). Accumulation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural in oil during frying of model dough. JAOCS, Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society, 90(3), 413–417.0
  45. Knutsen, H. K., Alexander, J., Barregård, L., Bignami, M., Brüschweiler, B., Ceccatelli, S., Cottrill, B., Dinovi, M., Edler, L., Grasl-Kraupp, B., Hogstrand, C., Hoogenboom, L., Nebbia, C. S., Oswald, I. P., Petersen, A., Rose, M., Roudot, A. C., Schwerdtle, T., Vleminckx, C., Wallace, H. (2017). Risks for public health related to the presence of furan and methyl furans in food. EFSA Journal, 15(10), e04718.
  46. Hao, J., Xu, XL., Jin, F., Regenstein, J. M., Wang, F. J. (2020). HS-SPME GC–MS characterization of volatiles in processed walnuts and their oxidative stability. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 57(7), 2693-2704.
  47. Fikry, M., Khalifa, I., Sami, R., Khojah, E., Ismail, K. A., Dabbour, M. (2021). Optimization of the frying temperature and time for preparation of healthy falafel using air frying technology. Foods, 10(11), 267.
  48. Choe, E., Min, DB. (2007). Chemistry of deep-fat frying oils. Journal of Food Science, 72 (5), 77-86.
  49. Depren, E., Seven, U., Güçer, Ş. (2008). Physical and chemical changes in olive oil during heat treatment. 1st National Olive Student Congress, 17-18 [in Turkish].
  50. Dincel Kasapoglu, E., Saglam, A. (2021). Effects of frying on free fatty acidity and oxidation degree in oil. Journal of Istanbul Aydin University Anadolu Bil Vocational School, 16(61) [in Turkish].
  51. Yongyod, R., Kerdsin, A. (2025). Modified test kit for detecting polar compounds and evaluating their distribution in reused frying oil. Foods, 14(9), 1572.
  52. Díez-Betriu, A., Quintanilla-Casas, B., Masdemont, J. J., Tres, A., Vichi, S., Guardiola, F. (2025). Deciphering the complexity of smoke point in virgin olive oils to develop simple predictive models. Foods, 14(23), 4099.
  53. Shi, J., Tao, J., Fu, Y., Zhao, L., Yang, R., Qu, L., Li, Z., Sun, Y. (2024). Rapid quantitative evaluation of total polar materials (TPM) in frying oil based on an “off–on” fluorescence viscosity response probe. Analytica Chimica Acta, 1292, 342267.
  54. Sahasrabudhe, S. N., Staton, J. A., Farkas, B. E. (2019). Effect of frying oil degradation on surface tension and wettability. LWT, 99, 519–524.
  55. Chen, F., Zhao, T., Liang, J., Cao, W., Jiang, Y., Xu, X. (2019). Specific heat capacity measurements of frying oil using modulated differential scanning calorimetry. Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society, 96(9), 1011–1018.
  56. Nawar, WW. (1984). Chemical changes in lipids produced by thermal processing. Journal of Chemical Education, 61, 299–302.
  57. Ryan, E., Galvin, K., O’Connor, TP., Maguire, AR. (2007). Phytosterol, squalene, tocopheral content and fatty acid profile of selected seeds, grains, and legumes. Plants Food Human Nutrition, 62, 85-91.
  58. Zhang, O., Saleh. A. S. M., Shen, Q. (2016). Monitoring of change in composition soybean oil during deepfrying with different food types. Journal of the American Oil Chemists Society, 93(1), 69-81.
  59. Aladedunye, FA., Przybylski, R. (2009). Degradation and nutritional quality changes of oil during frying. Journal of American Oil Chemist’s Society, 86(2), 149-156.
  60. Fujisaki, M., Endo, Y., Fujimoto, K. (2002). Retardation of volatile aldehyde formation in the exhaust of frying oil by heating under low oxygen atmospheres. Journal of the American Oil Chemists’ Society, 79, 909-914.
  61. Henning, R. J., Johnson, G. T., Coyle, J. P., Harbison, R. D. (2017). Acrolein can cause cardiovascular disease: A review. Cardiovascular Toxicology, 17, 227-236.
  62. Choe, E., Min, D. B. (2007). Chemistry of deep-fat frying oils. Journal of Food Science, 72, R77–R86.
  63. Tsai, H. C., Tsou, H. H., Lin, C. C., Chen, S. C., Cheng, H. W., Liu, T. S., Chen, W. S., Jiang, J. K., Yang, S. H., Chang, SC. (2021). Acrolein contributes to human colorectal tumorigenesis through the activation of RAS-MAPK pathway. Scientific Reports, 11, 12590.
  64. Le Gresley, A., Ampem, G., Grootveld, M., Percival, B., Naughton, D. (2019). Deep-frying impact on food and oil chemical composition: Strategies to reduce oil absorption in the final product. Food & Function, 10(12), 7952-7966.
  65. Liu, Q., Wu, P., Zhou, P., Luo, P. (2023). Levels and health risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in vegetable oils and frying oils by using the margin of exposure (moe) and the Incremental Lifetime Cancer Risk (ILCR) approach in China. Foods, 12(4), 811.
  66. Ma, L., He, Q., Qiu, Y., Liu, H., Wu, J., Liu, G., Zhu, L. (2021). Food matrixes play a key role in the distribution of contaminants of lipid origin: A case study of malondialdehyde formation in vegetable oils during deep-frying. Food Chemistry, 347, 129080.
  67. Zhou, X., Zhang, Z., Liu, X., Wu, D. Ding, Y., Li, G., Wu, Y. (2020). Typical reactive carbonyl compounds in food products formations, influence on food quality, and detection methods. Comprehensive Review in Food Science and Food Safety, 19(2), 503-529.
  68. Yonny, ME., Garda, E. M., Lopez. A., Arroquy, J. I., Nazareano, M. A. (2016). Measurement of malondialdehyde as oxidative stress biomarker in goat plasma by HPLC-DAD. Microchemical Journal, 129, 281-285.
  69. Niederhofer, L.J., Daniels, J.S., Rouzer, C.A., Greene, R.E., Marnett, L.J. (2003). Malondialdehyde, a product of lipid peroxidation, is mutagenic in human cells. Journal of Biological Chemistry, 278(33), 31426–31433.
  70. Sottero, B., Leonarduzzi, G., Testa, G., Gargiulo, S., Poli, G., Biasi, F. (2019). Lipid oxidation derived aldehydes and oxysterols between health and disease. European Journal of Lipid Science and Technology, 121(1).
  71. Tsikas, D. (2017). Assessment of lipid peroxidation by measuring malondialdehyde (MDA) and relatives in biological samples: Analytical and biological challenges. Analytical Biochemistry, 524, 13-30.
  72. Xin, L., Hu, M., Ma, X., Wu, S., Yoong, J. H., Chen, S., Tarmizi, A. H. A., Zhang, G. (2022). Selection of 12 vegetable oils influences the prevalence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, fatty acids, tocol homologs and total polar components during deep frying. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 114, 104840.
  73. Bansal, G., Zhou, W., Barlow, PJ., Lo, H. L., Neo, F. L. (2010). Performance of palm olein in repeated deep frying and controlled heating processes. Food Chemistry, 121, 338–347.
  74. Ben Hammouda, I., Triki, M., Matthäus, B., Bouaziz, M. (2018). A comparative study on formation of polar components, fatty acids and sterols during frying of refined olive pomace oil pure and its blend coconut oil. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 66(13), 3514-3523.
  75. Zribi, A., Jabeur, H., Aladedunye, F., Rebia, A., Matthaus, B., Bouaziz, M. (2014). Monitoring of quality and stability characteristics and fatty acid composition of refined olive oil seed oils during repeated pan and deep frying using GC, FT-NIRS and Chemometrics. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 62(42), 10357-10367.
  76. Cosgrove, J. P., Church, D. F., Pryor, W. A. (1987). The kinetics of the autoxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Lipids, 22, 299-304.
  77. Rossell, J. B. (2001). Factors affecting the quality of frying oils and fats. Frying, 115-164.
  78. Yu, K., Cho, H., Hwang, K. (2018). Physicochemical properties and oxidative stability of frying oils during repeated frying of potato chips. Food Science and Biotechnology, 27(3), 651–659.
  79. Frankel, E. N. (2005). The Oily Press Lipid Library: Lipid Oxidation. PJ Barnes & Associates, Bridgwater, UK, 18, 1-450.
  80. Grootveld, M., Percival, B. C., Leenders, J., Wilson, P. B. (2020). Potential adverse public health effects afforded by the ingestion of dietary lipid oxidation product toxins: Significance of fried food sources. Nutrients, 12, 974.
  81. Zhang, Q., Ahmet, S. M. S, Chen, J., Shen, Q. (2020). Chemical alterations taken place during deep- fat frying based on certain reaction products: A review. Chemistry and Physics of Lipids, 165(6), 662-681.
  82. Pala, M., Yıldız, M., Wetherilth, H. (1989). Comparative study of the effects of frying equipment on oil deterioration. Frying Report, Arçelik.
  83. Yuan, L., Jiang, F., Cao, X., Liu, Y., Xu, Y. J (2020). Metabolomics revals the toxicological effects of polar compounds from frying palm oil. Food & Function, 11(2), 1611-1623.
  84. Li, J., Li, X., Cai, W., Liu, Y. (2016). Comparision of different polar compounds- induced cytotoxxicty in Human hapatocellular carcinoma Hep G2 cells. Lipids in Health and Diasease, 15(1), 30.
  85. Paul S., Mittal G. S. (1997). Regulating the use of degraded oil/fat in deep- fat/oil food frying. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 37(7), 635-662.
  86. Bhattacharya, A. B., Sajilata, M. G., Tiwari, S. R., Singhal, RS. (2008). Regeneration of thermally polymerized frying oils with adsorbents. Food Chemistry, 110(3), 562-570.
  87. Saka, S., Aouacheri, W., Abdennour, C. (2002). The capacity of glutathione reductase in cell protection from the toxic effect of heated oils. Biochimie, 84(7): 661-665.
  88. Koher, Y. P., Sim. R. I., Abas, F., Lai, O. M., Wang, Y., Nehdi, I. A., Tan, C. P. (2020). Influence of carbohydrate- and protein-based foods on the formation of polar lipid fraction during deep frying. Food Control, 107.
  89. Koh, E., Surh, J. (2015). Food types and frying frequency affect the lipid oxidation of deep frying oil for the preparation of school meals in Korea. Food Chemistry, 174. 467-472.
  90. Márquez-Ruiz, G. (2009). Determination of polar compounds in used frying oils and fats by adsorption chromatography. AOCS Lipid Library.
  91. Orthoefer, F. T., List, G. R. (2007). Evaluation of used frying oil. Deep Frying, 329-342.
  92. Firestone, D. (2007). Regulation of frying fat and oil. In Deep Frying, 373-385, AOCS press.
  93. République française. (2008). Décret n° 2008-184 du 26 février 2008 (Article 8). Légifrance.
  94. Belgium. (1988). Arrêté royal relatif à l'utilisation d'huiles et de graisses comestibles lors de la friture de denrées alimentaires (22 janvier 1988) [Consolidated text].
  95. AFSCA/FAVV Scientific Committee, (2023). Evaluation of a request for derogation for deep-frying meat products in oil with a temperature higher than 180°C (dossier SciCom 2023/01). Federaal Agentschap voor de veiligheid van de voedselketen (https://scicom.favv-afsca.be).
  96. Federal Department of Home Affairs (EDI). (2016). Verordnung des EDI über Lebensmittel pflanzlicher Herkunft, Pilze und Speisesalz (SR 817.022.17).
  97. Niedersächsisches Landesamt für Verbraucherschutz und Lebensmittelsicherheit (LAVES). (n.d.). Heiß und fettig – intensive Kontrolle von Frittier- und Siedefetten. Österreichisches Lebensmittelbuch. (2025). 1.7 Frittierfette.
  98. Abrante-Pascual, S., Nieva-Echevarría, B., Goicoechea, E. (2024). Vegetable oils and their use for frying: A review of their compositional differences and degradation. Foods, 13(24), 4186.
  99. Bhat, S., Maganja, D., Huang, L., Wu, J. H., Marklund, M. (2022). Influence of heating during cooking on trans fatty acid content of edible oils: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrients, 14(7), 1489.
  100. Ozyıldırım, C. (2022). Effects of fatty acids on the development of type 2 diabetes. Gazi Journal of Health Sciences, 7(2), 57-67.
  101. Islam, M. A., Amin, M. N., Siddiqui, S. A., Hossain, M. P., Sultana, F., Kabir, M. R. (2019). Trans fatty acids and lipid profile: A serious risk factor to cardiovascular disease, cancer and diabetes. Diabetes & Metabolic Syndrome: Clinical Research & Reviews, 13(2), 1643-1647.
  102. Andrzejewski, D., Roach, J., Gay, M., ve Musser, S. (2004). Analysis of coffee for the presence of acrylamide by LC-MS/MS. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 52, 1996-2000.
  103. Juvvi, P., Kumar, R., Semwal, A. D. (2024). Recent studies on alternative technologies for deep-fat frying. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 61(8), 1417–1427.
  104. Pantalone, S., Verardo, V., Zafra-Gómez, A., Guerra-Hernández, E., Cichelli, A., D’Alessandro, N., Gómez-Caravaca, A. M. (2023). French fries by intermittent frying: Effect on process contaminants, acrylamide and pectic polysaccharides. Food Control, 150, 109771.
  105. Zhou, Z., Gao, P., Zhou, Y., Wang, X., Yin, J., Zhong, W., Reaney, M. J. T. (2024). Comparative analysis of frying performance: Assessing stability, nutritional value, and safety of high-oleic rapeseed oils. Foods, 13(17), 2788.
  106. Chen, J., Zhang, L., Guo, X., Qiang, J., Cao, Y., Zhang, S., Yu, X. (2025). Influence of frying conditions on quality attributes of frying oils: Kinetic investigation of polar compounds. Food Chemistry: X, 29, 102673.
  107. Fatima, S., Kumar, V., Bhadauria, G., Verma, H. (2023). Quality indicators based rapid test kits for detection of frying oil quality: A review. Food Chemistry Advances, 2, 100305.
  108. de Oliveira, V. S., Viana, D. S., Keller, L. M., Melo, M. J., Mulandeza, O. F., Barbosa, M. I. M. J., Barbosa Júnior, J. L., Saldanha, T. (2024). Impact of air frying on food lipids: Oxidative evidence, current research, and insights into domestic mitigation by natural antioxidants. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 147.