SavedAdd your journal

Journals / El-Cezeri / 2026 / Cilt: 13 Sayı: 2

Blockchain-based Internet of Things Security: A Survey

Blokzincir Tabanlı Nesnelerin İnterneti (IoT) Güvenliği: Bir Derleme

Reem Alshamy(GAZİ ÜNİVERSİTESİ, BİLİŞİM ENSTİTÜSÜ)0000-0003-0490-5387
M. Ali Akcayol(GAZI UNIVERSITY, FACULTY OF ENGINEERING)0000-0002-6615-1237
Journal
El-Cezeri
Pages
161–194
Publication Date
2026-05-03
🏛️Bibliographic metadata and full text access for this article are provided via DergiPark.
DergiPark Record ↗
✨

AI Summary & Key Takeaways

AI Insight
⚡ TL;DR(Too Long; Didn't Read)

Additionally, the paper identifies open issues and highlights potential research opportunities that can benefit future studies.

📌 3 Key Takeaways

🎯
Objective & Hypothesis:The Internet of Things (IoT) has become a major issue that has gained significant attention in the research community.
📊
Key Findings & Data:Advances in IoT technologies have resulted in the emergence of various security issues and raised concerns about potential privacy breaches of IoT data.
💡
Conclusion & Impact:Additionally, the paper identifies open issues and highlights potential research opportunities that can benefit future studies.
🔬Design:Derleme
📍Scope:Comprehensive Sample
⚙️Variables:Dağıtık Defter Teknolojisi · Nesnelerin İnterneti · Saldırı Tespit Sistemi

Abstract

The Internet of Things (IoT) has become a major issue that has gained significant attention in the research community. Advances in IoT technologies have resulted in the emergence of various security issues and raised concerns about potential privacy breaches of IoT data. Utilizing Blockchain (BC) is seen as a promising solution for addressing security issues in the IoT. This paper offers a clear overview of IoT security threats, including the related security characteristics and the challenges that come with integrating BC with IoT. A brief discussion of various consensus protocols and existing security techniques is presented. A comparative study of several Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT) platforms based on both qualitative and quantitative evaluation criteria is also presented. This paper explores the role of BC Technology in improving security in Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS) and other applications in the IoT environment. Additionally, the paper identifies open issues and highlights potential research opportunities that can benefit future studies.

Özet

Nesnelerin İnterneti (IoT), araştırma topluluğunda önemli ölçüde dikkat çeken büyük bir konu haline gelmiştir. IoT teknolojilerindeki ilerlemeler, çeşitli güvenlik sorunlarının ortaya çıkmasına ve IoT verilerinin olası gizlilik ihlalleri konusunda endişelerin artmasına yol açmıştır. Blokzincir (BC) kullanımı, IoT’deki güvenlik sorunlarını ele almak için umut verici bir çözüm olarak görülmektedir. Bu makale, IoT güvenlik tehditlerine, ilgili güvenlik özelliklerine ve BC’nin IoT ile entegrasyonunda ortaya çıkan zorluklara ilişkin açık bir genel bakış sunmaktadır. Çeşitli mutabakat protokolleri ve mevcut güvenlik teknikleri hakkında kısa bir tartışma sunulmuştur. Ayrıca, hem nitel hem de nicel değerlendirme kriterlerine dayanan çeşitli Dağıtık Defter Teknolojisi (DLT) platformlarının karşılaştırmalı bir çalışması da sunulmuştur. Bu makale, BC teknolojisinin Saldırı Tespit Sistemleri (IDS) ve IoT ortamındaki diğer uygulamalarda güvenliği artırmadaki rolünü incelemektedir. Ek olarak, makale açık sorunları tanımlamakta ve gelecekteki çalışmalara katkı sağlayabilecek potansiyel araştırma fırsatlarını vurgulamaktadır.

🔖

Cite This Article

Alshamy, R., Akcayol, M. A. (2026). Blockchain-based Internet of Things Security: A Survey. El-Cezeri, Cilt: 13 Sayı: 2, 161–194. https://doi.org/10.31202/ecjse.1804704

📄 Full Text PDF Viewer

📄

PDF görüntüleyici hazırlanıyor...

References (271)

  1. R. R. Krishna, A. Priyadarshini, A. V. Jha, B. Appasani, and A. Srinivasulu, "State-of-the-art review on IoT threats and attacks: Taxonomy, challenges and solutions.," Sustainability vol. 13, no. 16, p. 9463, 2021.
  2. V. Dedeoglu, R. Jurdak, G. D. Putra, A. Dorri, and S. S. Kanhere, "A trust architecture for blockchain in IoT," in Proceedings of the 16th EAI international conference on mobile and ubiquitous systems: computing, networking and services, 2019, pp. 190-199.
  3. N. T. Y. Huan and Z. A. J. I. A. Zukarnain, "A Survey on Addressing IoT Security Issues by Embedding Blockchain Technology Solutions: Review, Attacks, Current Trends, and Applications," 2024.
  4. P. Sun, S. Shen, Y. Wan, Z. Wu, Z. Fang, and X.-z. J. I. I. o. T. J. Gao, "A survey of iot privacy security: Architecture, technology, challenges, and trends," 2024.
  5. S. Haber and W. S. Stornetta, How to time-stamp a digital document. Springer, 1991.
  6. N. S. Bitcoin, "Bitcoin: A peer-to-peer electronic cash system," ed, 2008.
  7. S. Mathur, A. Kalla, G. Gür, M. K. Bohra, and M. J. C. N. Liyanage, "A survey on role of blockchain for IoT: Applications and technical aspects," vol. 227, p. 109726, 2023.
  8. V. Maurya et al., "Blockchain-driven security for IoT networks: State-of-the-art, challenges and future directions," vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 1-35, 2025.
  9. N. Sharma and P. J. C. C. Dhiman, "A survey on IoT security: challenges and their solutions using machine learning and blockchain technology," vol. 28, no. 5, pp. 1-40, 2025.
  10. M. Gholami, A. Ghaffari, N. Derakhshanfard, N. iBRAHIMOĞLU, A. A. P. J. C. Kazem, Materials, and Continua, "Blockchain Integration in IoT: Applications, Opportunities, and Challenges," vol. 83, no. 2, 2025.
  11. Y. Aounzou, A. Boulaalam, F. J. I. J. o. S. S. Kalloubi, and I. Systems, "Convergence of blockchain, IoT, and machine learning: exploring opportunities and challenges–a systematic review," vol. 18, no. 1, 2025.
  12. W. A. Al-Nbhany, A. T. Zahary, and A. A. Al-Shargabi, "Blockchain-IoT Healthcare Applications and Trends: A Review," IEEE Access, 2024.
  13. O. Akanfe, D. Lawong, and H. R. J. I. J. o. I. M. Rao, "Blockchain technology and privacy regulation: Reviewing frictions and synthesizing opportunities," vol. 76, p. 102753, 2024.
  14. V. Gugueoth, S. Safavat, S. Shetty, and D. J. C. S. R. Rawat, "A review of IoT security and privacy using decentralized blockchain techniques," vol. 50, p. 100585, 2023.
  15. H. Guo, X. J. B. r. Yu, and applications, "A survey on blockchain technology and its security," vol. 3, no. 2, p. 100067, 2022.
  16. S. Saxena, B. Bhushan, M. A. J. J. o. N. Ahad, and C. Applications, "Blockchain based solutions to secure IoT: Background, integration trends and a way forward," vol. 181, p. 103050, 2021.
  17. E. A. Shammar, A. T. Zahary, and A. A. Al-Shargabi, "A survey of IoT and blockchain integration: Security perspective," IEEE Access, vol. 9, pp. 156114-156150, 2021.
  18. R. Thakore, R. Vaghashiya, C. Patel, and N. J. P. c. s. Doshi, "Blockchain-based IoT: A survey," vol. 155, pp. 704-709, 2019.
  19. H.-N. Dai, Z. Zheng, and Y. J. I. i. o. t. j. Zhang, "Blockchain for Internet of Things: A survey," vol. 6, no. 5, pp. 8076-8094, 2019.
  20. M. Burhan, R. A. Rehman, B. Khan, and B.-S. J. s. Kim, "IoT elements, layered architectures and security issues: A comprehensive survey," vol. 18, no. 9, p. 2796, 2018.
  21. R. Kebache et al., "Reducing the Encrypted Data Size: Healthcare with IoT-Cloud Computing Applications," vol. 48, no. 4, 2024.
  22. Y. Ghoul, O. J. M. T. Naifar, and Applications, "IoT based applications for healthcare and home automation," vol. 83, no. 10, pp. 29945-29967, 2024.
  23. V. Sutar, K. J. G. I. J. o. E. Kulhalli, and Technology, "An Effective Stray Animal Detection and Crash Prevention System using Deep Learning and Internet of Things," vol. 10, no. 1, 2024.
  24. Z. Bi et al., "Real-time force monitoring of smart grippers for Internet of Things (IoT) applications," vol. 11, pp. 19-28, 2018.
  25. K. S. Sudha, N. J. C. Jeyanthi, and I. Technologies, "A review on privacy requirements and application layer security in internet of things (IoT)," vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 50-72, 2021.
  26. N. Koshizuka and K. J. I. P. C. Sakamura, "Ubiquitous ID: standards for ubiquitous computing and the internet of things," vol. 9, no. 4, pp. 98- 101, 2010.
  27. G. Casella, B. Bigliardi, and E. J. P. C. S. Bottani, "The evolution of RFID technology in the logistics field: a review," vol. 200, pp. 1582-1592, 2022.
  28. K. S. Mohamed, Bluetooth 5.0 Modem Design for IoT Devices. Springer, 2022.
  29. M. L. Hamzah et al., "Implementation of the internet of things on smart posters using near field communication technology in the tourism sector," vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 194-202, 2022.
  30. M. J. Alam, M. R. Hossain, S. Azad, and R. J. T. o. E. T. T. Chugh, "An overview of LTE/LTE‐A heterogeneous networks for 5G and beyond," vol. 34, no. 8, p. e4806, 2023.
  31. E. Mozaffariahrar, F. Theoleyre, and M. J. F. I. Menth, "A survey of Wi-Fi 6: Technologies, advances, and challenges," vol. 14, no. 10, p. 293, 2022.
  32. N. Al-Taleb and N. Min-Allah, "A study on internet of things operating systems," in 2019 IEEE International Conference on Electrical, Computer and Communication Technologies (ICECCT), 2019, pp. 1-7: IEEE.
  33. E. A. Shammar and A. T. J. L. H. T. Zahary, "The Internet of Things (IoT): a survey of techniques, operating systems, and trends," vol. 38, no. 1, pp. 5-66, 2020.
  34. S. F. Barrett, Arduino microcontroller processing for everyone! Springer Nature, 2022.
  35. M. Maksimović, V. Vujović, N. Davidović, V. Milošević, and B. J. d. i. Perišić, "Raspberry Pi as Internet of things hardware: performances and constraints," vol. 3, no. 8, pp. 1-6, 2014.
  36. M. De Sousa, Internet of Things with Intel Galileo. Packt Publishing Ltd, 2015.
  37. M. Gigli, S. J. D. o. M. Koo, and U. o. S. D. Computer Science, USA, "Internet of things: services and applications categorization," 2011.
  38. S. Dhiviya, S. Malathy, D. R. J. J. o. c. Kumar, and t. nanoscience, "Internet of things (IoT) elements, trends and applications," vol. 15, no. 5, pp. 1639-1643, 2018.
  39. P. K. Sadhu, V. P. Yanambaka, and A. J. S. Abdelgawad, "Internet of things: Security and solutions survey," vol. 22, no. 19, p. 7433, 2022.
  40. M. G. d. Santos, D. Ameyed, F. Petrillo, F. Jaafar, and M. J. a. p. a. Cheriet, "Internet of Things architectures: A comparative study," 2020.
  41. B. Ali and A. I. J. s. Awad, "Cyber and physical security vulnerability assessment for IoT-based smart homes," vol. 18, no. 3, p. 817, 2018.
  42. D. U. J. T. J. o. E. ugli Jurayev and Technology, "Security in the Internet of Things: A Review," vol. 11, pp. 15-17, 2022.
  43. O. Said and M. J. I. J. o. C. N. Masud, "Towards internet of things: Survey and future vision," vol. 5, no. 1, pp. 1-17, 2013.
  44. D. J. I. J. C. A. R. Darwish, "Improved layered architecture for Internet of Things," vol. 4, no. 4, pp. 214-223, 2015.
  45. M. A. Pisching, M. A. Pessoa, F. Junqueira, D. J. dos Santos Filho, P. E. J. C. Miyagi, and I. Engineering, "An architecture based on RAMI 4.0 to discover equipment to process operations required by products," vol. 125, pp. 574-591, 2018.
  46. T. Rajmohan, P. H. Nguyen, and N. J. C. Ferry, "A decade of research on patterns and architectures for IoT security," vol. 5, no. 1, p. 2, 2022.
  47. S. A. Ansar, S. Arya, S. Aggrawal, S. Saxena, A. Kushwaha, and P. C. Pathak, "Security in IoT layers: Emerging challenges with countermeasures," in Computer Vision and Robotics: Proceedings of CVR 2022: Springer, 2023, pp. 551-563.
  48. IoT Architecture. Accessed: June. 22, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://jelvix.com/blog/iot-architecture-layers
  49. R. Prakash, N. Jyoti, and S. Manjunatha, "A survey of security challenges, attacks in IoT," in E3S Web of Conferences, 2024, vol. 491, p. 04018: EDP Sciences.
  50. S. Abbas et al., "Evaluating deep learning variants for cyber-attacks detection and multi-class classification in IoT networks," vol. 10, p. e1793, 2024.
  51. M. Adam, M. Hammoudeh, R. Alrawashdeh, and B. J. I. A. Alsulaimy, "A Survey on Security, Privacy, Trust, and Architectural Challenges in IoT Systems," 2024.
  52. E. Altulaihan, M. A. Almaiah, and A. J. S. Aljughaiman, "Anomaly Detection IDS for Detecting DoS Attacks in IoT Networks Based on Machine Learning Algorithms," vol. 24, no. 2, p. 713, 2024.
  53. G. Agrawal, A. Kaur, and S. J. E. Myneni, "A Review of Generative Models in Generating Synthetic Attack Data for Cybersecurity," vol. 13, no. 2, p. 322, 2024.
  54. S. Huh, S. Cho, and S. Kim, "Managing IoT devices using blockchain platform," in 2017 19th international conference on advanced communication technology (ICACT), 2017, pp. 464-467: IEEE.
  55. F. Pelekoudas-Oikonomou, J. C. Ribeiro, G. Mantas, G. Sakellari, and J. Gonzalez, "Prototyping a hyperledger fabric-based security architecture for IoMT-based health monitoring systems," Future Internet, vol. 15, no. 9, p. 308, 2023.
  56. B. W. Nyamtiga, J. C. S. Sicato, S. Rathore, Y. Sung, and J. H. J. E. Park, "Blockchain-based secure storage management with edge computing for IoT," vol. 8, no. 8, p. 828, 2019.
  57. V. T. Truong and L. B. Le, "MetaCIDS: Privacy-Preserving Collaborative Intrusion Detection for Metaverse based on Blockchain and Online Federated Learning," IEEE Open Journal of the Computer Society, 2023.
  58. A. Khang, V. Abdullayev, V. Hahanov, and V. Shah, Advanced IoT Technologies and Applications in the Industry 4.0 Digital Economy. CRC Press, 2024.
  59. M. Singh and S. Kim, "Trust bit: Reward-based intelligent vehicle commination using blockchain paper," in 2018 IEEE 4th World Forum on Internet of Things (WF-IoT), 2018, pp. 62-67: IEEE.
  60. M. A. Ferrag, M. Derdour, M. Mukherjee, A. Derhab, L. Maglaras, and H. J. I. I. o. T. J. Janicke, "Blockchain technologies for the internet of things: Research issues and challenges," vol. 6, no. 2, pp. 2188-2204, 2018.
  61. Z. Ke and N. J. C. C. Park, "Performance modeling and analysis of Hyperledger Fabric," vol. 26, no. 5, pp. 2681-2699, 2023.
  62. K. Korpela, J. Hallikas, and T. Dahlberg, "Digital supply chain transformation toward blockchain integration," 2017.
  63. E. Blog, "On Public and Private Blockchains-Ethereum Blog.(2015)," ed, 2015.
  64. J. Yusoff, Z. Mohamad, M. J. J. o. C. Anuar, and Communications, "A review: Consensus algorithms on blockchain," vol. 10, no. 09, pp. 37-50, 2022.
  65. A. Tasdelen, "Fundamentals of Blockchain," in Exploring Blockchain Applications: CRC Press, 2024, pp. 6-25.
  66. M. I. Sarwar, L. A. Maghrabi, I. Khan, Q. H. Naith, and K. J. I. A. Nisar, "Blockchain: A Crypto-Intensive Technology-A Comprehensive Review," 2023.
  67. M. T. Hammi, B. Hammi, P. Bellot, A. J. C. Serhrouchni, and Security, "Bubbles of Trust: A decentralized blockchain-based authentication system for IoT," vol. 78, pp. 126-142, 2018.
  68. M. Daghmehchi Firoozjaei, A. Ghorbani, H. Kim, and J. J. S. Song, "Hy-Bridge: A hybrid blockchain for privacy-preserving and trustful energy transactions in Internet-of-Things platforms," vol. 20, no. 3, p. 928, 2020.
  69. H. Xiong, T. Dalhaus, P. Wang, and J. J. f. i. B. Huang, "Blockchain technology for agriculture: applications and rationale," vol. 3, p. 7, 2020.
  70. P. Paul, P. Aithal, R. Saavedra, S. J. I. J. o. A. S. Ghosh, and Engineering, "Blockchain Technology and its Types—A Short Review," vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 189-200, 2021.
  71. I. A. Omar, R. Jayaraman, K. Salah, I. Yaqoob, S. J. A. J. f. S. Ellahham, and Engineering, "Applications of blockchain technology in clinical trials: review and open challenges," vol. 46, pp. 3001-3015, 2021.
  72. X. Yang, X. Li, H. Wu, and K. J. M. d. e. r. Zhao, "The application model and challenges of blockchain technology in education," vol. 2, pp. 34- 45, 2017.
  73. B. Samuel and K. Kasturi, "A Review of Blockchain Technology in Smart Applications: Research Issues and Open Challenges," in 2023 International Conference on Computer Communication and Informatics (ICCCI), 2023, pp. 1-5: IEEE.
  74. G. Kaur and C. Gandhi, "Scalability in blockchain: Challenges and solutions," in Handbook of Research on Blockchain Technology: Elsevier, 2020, pp. 373-406.
  75. A. Panarello, N. Tapas, G. Merlino, F. Longo, and A. J. S. Puliafito, "Blockchain and iot integration: A systematic survey," vol. 18, no. 8, p. 2575, 2018.
  76. S. Asiri and A. Miri, "A sybil resistant IoT trust model using blockchains," in 2018 IEEE International Conference on Internet of Things (iThings) and IEEE Green Computing and Communications (GreenCom) and IEEE Cyber, Physical and Social Computing (CPSCom) and IEEE Smart Data (SmartData), 2018, pp. 1017-1026: IEEE.
  77. A. Moinet, B. Darties, and J.-L. J. a. p. a. Baril, "Blockchain based trust & authentication for decentralized sensor networks," 2017.
  78. A. Singh, A. Smirti, R. Gupta, C. de Alwis, and A. Kalla, "Introduction to blockchain and smart contract–principles, applications, and security," in Blockchain Technology in Healthcare Applications: CRC Press, 2022, pp. 175-197.
  79. A. Sultan, M. A. Malik, and A. J. A. J. C. S. I. T. Mushtaq, "Internet of Things security issues and their solutions with blockchain technology characteristics: A systematic literature review," vol. 6, no. 3, p. 27, 2018.
  80. P. Xie, A. A. M. Kassim, M. Wei, R. A. A. J. J. o. S. Helmi, and M. Sciences, "Comprehensive Review of Blockchain Applications in Fintech Companies," vol. 14, no. 1, pp. 98-119, 2024.
  81. Y. J. J. o. I. I. I. Lu, "The blockchain: State-of-the-art and research challenges," vol. 15, pp. 80-90, 2019.
  82. S. Priyanka and A. J. I. J. S. R. S. E. T. Nagaratnam, "Blockchain evolution-a survey paper," vol. 4, no. 8, pp. 27-30, 2018.
  83. Z. Zheng, S. Xie, H.-N. Dai, X. Chen, H. J. I. j. o. w. Wang, and g. services, "Blockchain challenges and opportunities: A survey," vol. 14, no. 4, pp. 352-375, 2018.
  84. L. Peng et al., "Privacy preservation in permissionless blockchain: A survey," vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 295-307, 2021.
  85. R. J. J. o. H. M. Rajaguru and Management, "Effects of contemporary technologies, such as blockchain and artificial intelligence (AI) in enhancing consumers’ trustworthiness of online reviews," vol. 33, no. 2, pp. 251-259, 2024.
  86. W. Fang et al., "Digital signature scheme for information non-repudiation in blockchain: a state of the art review," vol. 2020, pp. 1-15, 2020.
  87. G. J. E. p. y. p. Wood. (2014, 2014). Ethereum: A secure decentralised generalised transaction ledger Accessed: June. 22, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://files.gitter.im/ethereum/ yellowpaper/VIyt/Paper.pdf
  88. (29. Jan.2024). Hyperledger Open Source Blockchain Technologies. Accessed: June. 22, 2025. [Online] Available: https://www.hyperledger.org/
  89. Multichain. Accessed: Accessed: June. 22, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://www.multichain.com/
  90. IOTA. Accessed: June. 22, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://www.iota.org/
  91. Corda. Accessed: June. 22, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://r3.com/products/corda/
  92. M. I. Mehar et al., "Understanding a revolutionary and flawed grand experiment in blockchain: the DAO attack," vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 19-32, 2019.
  93. S. Knezevic, "A blockchain approach for negotiating trust in IoT," 2020.
  94. A. Yewale, "Study of blockchain-as-a-service systems with a case study of hyperledger fabric implementation on Kubernetes," University of Nevada, Las Vegas, 2018.
  95. D. Li, W. E. Wong, and J. Guo, "A survey on blockchain for enterprise using hyperledger fabric and composer," in 2019 6th International Conference on Dependable Systems and Their Applications (DSA), 2020, pp. 71-80: IEEE.
  96. Burrow. Accessed: June. 22, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://www.hyperledger.org/projects/sawtooth
  97. T. Q. Ban, B. N. Anh, N. T. Son, and T. Van Dinh, "Survey of Hyperledger blockchain frameworks: case study in FPT university's cryptocurrency wallets," in Proceedings of the 2019 8th International Conference on Software and Computer Applications, 2019, pp. 472-480.
  98. V. Dhillon et al., "The hyperledger project. Accessed: June. 22, 2025. Online]," pp. 139-149, 2017.
  99. The Hyperledger greenhouse. Accessed: June. 22, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://www.hyperledger.org/
  100. A. Rasti and A. Gheibi, "A Coin Marketplace Implementation on Blockchain Using the Hyperledger Platform," 2018.
  101. R. Gürfidan, M. J. J. o. D. Ersoy, Information, and Management, "A new approach with blockchain based for safe communication in IoT ecosystem," vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 49-56, 2022.
  102. Waltonchain. Accessed: June. 22, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://www.waltonchain.org/
  103. C. Saraf and S. Sabadra, "Blockchain platforms: A compendium," in 2018 IEEE International Conference on Innovative Research and Development (ICIRD), 2018, pp. 1-6: IEEE.
  104. S. Dalla Palma, R. Pareschi, and F. Zappone, "What is your distributed (hyper) ledger?," in 2021 IEEE/ACM 4th International Workshop on Emerging Trends in Software Engineering for Blockchain (WETSEB), 2021, pp. 27-33: IEEE.
  105. A. Abdelmaboud et al., "Blockchain for IoT applications: taxonomy, platforms, recent advances, challenges and future research directions," vol. 11, no. 4, p. 630, 2022.
  106. S. Nikolić, N. Zdravković, I. Franc, and N. Arivazhagan, "A Comparison on Hyperledger Consensus Mechanism Security and their Applications," 2023.
  107. Cardano. Accessed: June. 22, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://www.cardano.org/en/home/ [12] (Sep. 2019). Iota. [
  108. C. Fan, C. Lin, H. Khazaei, and P. Musilek, "Performance analysis of hyperledger besu in private blockchain," in 2022 IEEE international conference on decentralized applications and infrastructures (DAPPS), 2022, pp. 64-73: IEEE.
  109. M. S. Ferdous, K. Biswas, M. J. M. Chowdhury, N. Chowdhury, and V. Muthukkumarasamy, "Integrated platforms for blockchain enablement," in Advances in Computers, vol. 115: Elsevier, 2019, pp. 41-72.
  110. G. J. A. J. Gideon, "Multichain Private Blockchain White Paper," vol. 28, p. 2021, 2015.
  111. M. J. M. Chowdhury et al., "A comparative analysis of distributed ledger technology platforms," vol. 7, pp. 167930-167943, 2019.
  112. S. J. W. p. Popov, "The tangle," vol. 1, no. 3, p. 30, 2018.
  113. R. Brown, "The Corda platform: An introduction white paper," 2018.
  114. D. Schwartz, N. Youngs, and A. J. R. L. I. W. P. Britto, "The ripple protocol consensus algorithm Accessed: June. 22, 2025. [Online].," vol. 5, no. 8, p. 151, 2014.
  115. H. Team, "HDAC: transaction innovation—IoT contract M2M transaction platform based on blockchain," ed, 2018.
  116. J. Kwon and E. J. U. h. c. n. w. Buchman, "Cosmos: A network of distributed ledgers," 2016.
  117. I. J. I. T. Team, "IoTeX: a decentralized network for Internet of Things powered by a privacy-centric blockchain," 2018.
  118. T. McConaghy et al., "Bigchaindb: a scalable blockchain database," pp. 53-72, 2016.
  119. R. Creighton, "Domus Tower Blockchain (DRAFT) March 28, 2016," 2016.
  120. HydraChain. Accessed: June. 22, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://github.com/HydraChain
  121. Openchain Blockchain Technology for the Enterprise. Accessed: June. 22, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://www.openchain.org/
  122. Eos. Accessed: June. 22, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://eos.io/
  123. P. Grover, A. K. Kar, M. Janssen, and P. V. J. E. I. S. Ilavarasan, "Perceived usefulness, ease of use and user acceptance of blockchain technology for digital transactions–insights from user-generated content on Twitter," vol. 13, no. 6, pp. 771-800, 2019.
  124. B. J. I. S. Anthony Jr, "Distributed ledger and decentralised technology adoption for smart digital transition in collaborative enterprise. Enterp," pp. 1-34, 2021.
  125. S. Cherbal, A. Zier, S. Hebal, L. Louail, and B. J. T. J. o. S. Annane, "Security in internet of things: a review on approaches based on blockchain, machine learning, cryptography, and quantum computing," vol. 80, no. 3, pp. 3738-3816, 2024.
  126. H. Moudoud, S. Cherkaoui, and L. Khoukhi, "An IoT blockchain architecture using oracles and smart contracts: the use-case of a food supply chain," in 2019 IEEE 30th Annual International Symposium on Personal, Indoor and Mobile Radio Communications (PIMRC), 2019, pp. 1-6: IEEE.
  127. S. Biswas, K. Sharif, F. Li, S. Maharjan, S. P. Mohanty, and Y. J. I. I. o. T. J. Wang, "PoBT: A lightweight consensus algorithm for scalable IoT business blockchain," vol. 7, no. 3, pp. 2343-2355, 2019.
  128. R. Boncea, I. Petre, and V. J. R. C. S. J. Vevera, "Building trust among things in omniscient Internet using Blockchain Technology," vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 17-24, 2019.
  129. A. Reyna, C. Martín, J. Chen, E. Soler, and M. J. F. g. c. s. Díaz, "On blockchain and its integration with IoT. Challenges and opportunities," vol. 88, pp. 173-190, 2018.
  130. L. J. C. A. a. h. w. c. c. a. w.-a.-s.-c.-a.-h.-d.-i.-w. h. Mearian, "What’sa smart contract (and how does it work)," 2019.
  131. Y. Zhou, R. Han, and Y. J. E. Li, "Reputation consensus mechanism for blockchain based on information-centric networking," vol. 14, no. 6, p. 1099, 2025.
  132. I. A. Reshi and S. J. C. C. Sholla, "IBF network: enhancing network privacy with IoT, blockchain, and fog computing on different consensus mechanisms," vol. 28, no. 3, p. 208, 2025.
  133. N. Ilakkiya and A. Rajaram, "Blockchain-Enabled Lightweight Intrusion Detection System for Secure MANETs," Journal of Electrical Engineering & Technology, pp. 1-15, 2024.
  134. N. Alsaeed, F. Nadeem, and F. J. F. G. C. S. Albalwy, "A scalable and lightweight group authentication framework for Internet of Medical Things using integrated blockchain and fog computing," vol. 151, pp. 162-181, 2024.
  135. P. Bhattacharya et al., "LightBlocks: A trusted lightweight signcryption and consensus scheme for industrial IoT ecosystems," vol. 88, p. 103785, 2024.
  136. X. Zhou et al., "Federated distillation and blockchain empowered secure knowledge sharing for Internet of medical Things," vol. 662, p. 120217, 2024.
  137. Z. WANG, J. Li, A. Liu, K. Ota, M. Dong, and X. Chen, "RQPoA: A random quantum PoA Consensus Mechanism in Blockchain Based on Quantum Methods," 2024.
  138. R. Huang, X. Yang, P. J. I. o. T. Ajay, and C.-P. Systems, "Consensus mechanism for software-defined blockchain in internet of things," vol. 3, pp. 52-60, 2023.
  139. Y. Zhao, Y. Qu, Y. Xiang, Y. Zhang, and L. J. I. T. o. S. C. Gao, "A Lightweight Model-Based Evolutionary Consensus Protocol in Blockchain as a Service for IoT," 2023.
  140. A. Dorri and R. Jurdak, "Tree-chain: A fast lightweight consensus algorithm for iot applications," in 2020 IEEE 45th Conference on Local Computer Networks (LCN), 2020, pp. 369-372: IEEE.
  141. G. Shi et al., "MEDACCESSX: A Blockchain-Enabled Dynamic Access Control Framework for IoMT Networks," vol. 25, no. 6, p. 1857, 2025.
  142. G. Piao, J. J. P.-t.-P. N. Zhu, and Applications, "AccessChain: A scalable and privacy-preserving access control scheme for blockchain-based IoT," vol. 18, no. 2, p. 92, 2025.
  143. E. A. Shammar, A. T. Zahary, A. A. J. W. C. Al-Shargabi, and M. Computing, "An attribute‐based access control model for Internet of Things using hyperledger fabric blockchain," vol. 2022, no. 1, p. 6926408, 2022.
  144. P. Li, D. Zhou, H. Ma, and J. J. J. o. S. A. Lai, "Flexible and secure access control for EHR sharing based on blockchain," vol. 146, p. 103033, 2024.
  145. M. Khalid, S. Hameed, A. Qadir, S. A. Shah, and D. J. C. C. Draheim, "Towards SDN-based smart contract solution for IoT access control," vol. 198, pp. 1-31, 2023.
  146. S. Kaven and V. Skwarek, "Poster: Attribute based access control for IoT devices in 5G networks," in Proceedings of the 28th ACM Symposium on Access Control Models and Technologies, 2023, pp. 51-53.
  147. S. Algarni et al., "Blockchain-based secured access control in an IoT system," vol. 11, no. 4, p. 1772, 2021.
  148. R. Muñoz et al., "Integration of IoT, transport SDN, and edge/cloud computing for dynamic distribution of IoT analytics and efficient use of network resources," vol. 36, no. 7, pp. 1420-1428, 2018.
  149. R. Sethi, B. Bhushan, N. Sharma, R. Kumar, and I. J. M. t. i. t. I. o. T. e. Kaushik, "Applicability of industrial IoT in diversified sectors: evolution, applications and challenges," pp. 45-67, 2021.
  150. A. Malik, S. Gautam, S. Abidin, and B. Bhushan, "Blockchain technology-future of IoT: including structure, limitations and various possible attacks," in 2019 2nd international conference on intelligent computing, instrumentation and control technologies (ICICICT), 2019, vol. 1, pp. 1100-1104: IEEE.
  151. W. Pan, F. Zheng, Y. Zhao, W.-T. Zhu, J. J. I. T. o. I. F. Jing, and Security, "An efficient elliptic curve cryptography signature server with GPU acceleration," vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 111-122, 2016.
  152. J. Wu, F. Xiong, and C. J. I. A. Li, "Application of Internet of Things and blockchain technologies to improve accounting information quality," vol. 7, pp. 100090-100098, 2019.
  153. A. Al Sadawi, M. S. Hassan, and M. J. I. A. Ndiaye, "A survey on the integration of blockchain with IoT to enhance performance and eliminate challenges," vol. 9, pp. 54478-54497, 2021.
  154. C. Lin, D. He, X. Huang, K.-K. R. Choo, A. V. J. J. o. n. Vasilakos, and c. applications, "BSeIn: A blockchain-based secure mutual authentication with fine-grained access control system for industry 4.0," vol. 116, pp. 42-52, 2018.
  155. S. Wang, D. Li, Y. Zhang, and J. J. I. a. Chen, "Smart contract-based product traceability system in the supply chain scenario," vol. 7, pp. 115122- 115133, 2019.
  156. C. Kolias, G. Kambourakis, A. Stavrou, and J. J. C. Voas, "DDoS in the IoT: Mirai and other botnets," vol. 50, no. 7, pp. 80-84, 2017.
  157. S. Sicari, A. Rizzardi, D. Miorandi, and A. J. C. N. Coen-Porisini, "REATO: REActing TO Denial of Service attacks in the Internet of Things," vol. 137, pp. 37-48, 2018.
  158. H. Halpin and M. Piekarska, "Introduction to Security and Privacy on the Blockchain," in 2017 IEEE European symposium on security and privacy workshops (EuroS&PW), 2017, pp. 1-3: IEEE.
  159. A. M. Almasabi, A. B. Alkhodre, M. Khemakhem, F. Eassa, A. A. Abi Sen, and A. J. I. Harbaoui, "Internet of Things-Based Anomaly Detection Hybrid Framework Simulation Integration of Deep Learning and Blockchain," vol. 16, no. 5, p. 406, 2025.
  160. D. JYOTHI et al., "DESIGN OF AN IMPROVED METHOD FOR INTRUSION DETECTION USING CNN, LSTM, AND BLOCK CHAIN," vol. 102, no. 1, 2025.
  161. E. Ntizikira, L. Wang, J. Chen, and K. Saleem, "Honey-block: Edge assisted ensemble learning model for intrusion detection and prevention using defense mechanism in IoT," Computer Communications, vol. 214, pp. 1-17, 2024.
  162. V. T. Truong and L. B. Le, "Security for the Metaverse: Blockchain and Machine Learning Techniques for Intrusion Detection," IEEE Network, 2024.
  163. R. Hanumantharaju, K. Shreenath, B. Sowmya, and K. Srinivasa, "Fog-Driven Approach for Distributed Intrusion Detection System in Auditing the Data Dased on Blockchain-Cloud Systems," Cloud Computing and Data Science, pp. 97-107, 2024.
  164. N. Sun, W. Wang, Y. Tong, and K. J. F. o. C. S. Liu, "Blockchain based federated learning for intrusion detection for Internet of Things," vol. 18, no. 5, p. 185328, 2024.
  165. S.-J. Hsiao and W.-T. Sung, "Enhancing cybersecurity using blockchain technology based on IoT data fusion," IEEE Internet of Things Journal, vol. 10, no. 1, pp. 486-498, 2022.
  166. I. Aliyu, M. C. Feliciano, S. Van Engelenburg, D. O. Kim, and C. G. Lim, "A blockchain-based federated forest for SDN-enabled in-vehicle network intrusion detection system," IEEE Access, vol. 9, pp. 102593-102608, 2021.
  167. W. Li, Y. Wang, J. Li, and M. H. Au, "Toward a blockchain-based framework for challenge-based collaborative intrusion detection," International Journal of Information Security, vol. 20, pp. 127-139, 2021.
  168. M. Iqbal, A. Kormiltsyn, V. Dwivedi, and R. Matulevičius, "Blockchain-based ontology driven reference framework for security risk management," Data & Knowledge Engineering, vol. 149, p. 102257, 2024.
  169. A. Cirne, P. R. Sousa, J. S. Resende, and L. Antunes, "Hardware security for Internet of Things identity assurance," IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials, 2024.
  170. S. M. Othman, A. Y. Al-mutawkkil, A. M. J. S. a. U. J. o. A. S. Alnashi, and Technology, "Survey of Intrusion Detection Techniques in Cloud Computing," vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 363-374, 2024.
  171. M. Ghurab, G. Gaphari, F. Alshami, R. Alshamy, and S. J. A. J. o. R. i. C. S. Othman, "A detailed analysis of benchmark datasets for network intrusion detection system," vol. 7, no. 4, pp. 14-33, 2021.
  172. B. Kaur et al., "Internet of things (IoT) security dataset evolution: Challenges and future directions," p. 100780, 2023.
  173. . CICIoMT2024 Dataset. Accessed: June. 22, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://www.unb.ca/cic/datasets/iomt-dataset-2024.html
  174. P. Chandekar, M. Mehta, and S. J. a. p. a. Chandan, "Enhanced anomaly detection in iomt networks using ensemble ai models on the ciciomt2024 dataset," 2025.
  175. J. Doménech, O. León, M. S. Siddiqui, and J. J. I. o. T. Pegueroles, "Evaluating and enhancing intrusion detection systems in IoMT: The importance of domain-specific datasets," p. 101631, 2025.
  176. E. C. P. Neto, S. Dadkhah, R. Ferreira, A. Zohourian, R. Lu, and A. A. Ghorbani. (2023). CIC IoT Attack Dataset 2023 [Online]. Available: https://www.unb.ca/cic/datasets/iotdataset-2023.html
  177. Q. Gulzar, K. J. I. J. o. M. L. Mustafa, and Cybernetics, "Enhancing network security in industrial IoT environments: a DeepCLG hybrid learning model for cyberattack detection," pp. 1-19, 2025.
  178. A. M. Al-Ghamdi and M. M. J. I. I. J. o. C. S. Alansari, "Enhancing IoT Security: A Comparative Study of CNN and RNN-Based Anomaly Detection Using the CICIoT2023 Dataset," vol. 52, no. 5, 2025.
  179. Y. Kim, S. Hakak, and A. Ghorbani. (2023 ). DDoS Attack (CICEV2023). Accessed: June. 22, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://www.unb.ca/cic/datasets/cicev2023.html
  180. F. M. Talaat, M. M. E. Khoudier, I. F. Moawad, and A. El-Ghamry, "Fortifying EV Charging Stations: AI-Powered Detection and Mitigation of DDoS Attacks Using Personalized Federated Learning."
  181. A. G. Kumar and S. Dahiya, "Machine Learning for Advancing Electric Vehicles Security Leveraging CICEVSE2024," in 2025 International Russian Smart Industry Conference (SmartIndustryCon), 2025, pp. 240-245: IEEE.
  182. S. Dadkhah, H. Mahdikhani, P. K. Danso, A. Zohourian, K. A. Truong, and A. A. Ghorbani. (2022). CIC IoT Dataset 2022 [Online]. Available: https://www.unb.ca/cic/datasets/iotdataset-2022.htmll
  183. H. Wasswa, H. Abbass, and T. J. A. a. S. Lynar, "Latent Space Alignment for Robust Detection of Iot Botnet Attacks in Non-Stationary Environments."
  184. M. Rabbani et al., "A lightweight IoT device identification using enhanced behavioral-based features," vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 1-22, 2025.
  185. H. Hindy, C. Tachtatzis, R. Atkinson, E. Bayne, and X. J. D. h. d. o. b.-e. Bellekens, "MQTT-IOT-IDS2020: MQTT internet of things intrusion detection dataset (2020)," 2020.
  186. H. Zeghida et al., "Enhancing IoT cyber attacks intrusion detection through GAN-based data augmentation and hybrid deep learning models for MQTT network protocol cyber attacks," vol. 28, no. 1, p. 58, 2025.
  187. H. Zeghida, M. Boulaiche, R. Chikh, A. Patel, A. L. B. Barros, and A. M. J. I. J. o. I. S. Bamhdi, "XMID-MQTT: explaining machine learningbased intrusion detection system for MQTT protocol in IoT environment," vol. 24, no. 3, pp. 1-22, 2025.
  188. . The BoT-IoT Dataset. Accessed: June. 22, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://ieee-dataport.org/documents/bot-iot-dataset#files
  189. M. Luqman et al., "Intelligent parameter-based in-network IDS for IoT using UNSW-NB15 and BoT-IoT datasets," vol. 362, no. 1, p. 107440, 2025.
  190. J. Ashraf, G. M. Raza, B.-S. Kim, A. Wahid, and H.-Y. J. A. S. Kim, "Making a Real-Time IoT Network Intrusion-Detection System (INIDS) Using a Realistic BoT–IoT Dataset with Multiple Machine-Learning Classifiers," vol. 15, no. 4, 2025.
  191. N. Kumaran, S. M. J. C. JS, and SYSTEMS, "BRDO: Blockchain Assisted Intrusion Detection Using Optimized Deep Stacked Network," 2023.
  192. T. Sharma, U. J. I. J. o. A. R. Datta, and M. Trends, "An Intelligent Intrusion Detection Using Deep Learning on CICIDS2018 for Cloud Security," vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 747-759, 2025.
  193. Q. M. Alzubi, S. N. Makhadmeh, and Y. J. J. o. A. i. I. T. Sanjalawe, "Optimizing Intrusion Detection: Advanced Feature Selection and Machine Learning Techniques Using the CSE-CIC-IDS2018 Dataset," vol. 16, no. 3, 2025.
  194. G. S. C. Kumar, R. K. Kumar, K. P. V. Kumar, N. R. Sai, and M. J. E. S. w. A. Brahmaiah, "Deep residual convolutional neural Network: An efficient technique for intrusion detection system," vol. 238, p. 121912, 2024.
  195. M. Ali, S. Pervez, S. E. Hosseini, M. K. J. I. J. o. O. Siddhu, and B. Engineering, "Evaluation and Detection of Cyberattack in IoT-Based Smart City Networks Using Machine Learning on the UNSW-NB15 Dataset," vol. 21, no. 2, 2025.
  196. V. Kumar, V. Kumar, A. P. S. Bhadauria, J. Dixit, and A. Kumar, "Intrusion Detection at the Edge Computing: A Deep Learning Approach Using the UNSW-NB15 Dataset," in 2025 IEEE 14th International Conference on Communication Systems and Network Technologies (CSNT), 2025, pp. 220-224: IEEE.
  197. "ISCX2012 dataset. Accessed: 2012 [Online].", ed.
  198. S. Ahmadi, "Evolving Botnet Defenses: A Survey of Machine Learning Approaches for Identifying Polymorphic and Evasive Malware," 2025.
  199. S. Vadlamudi and A. V. Bharathy, "Systematic Study on AI-Enabled Defense Against DDoS Attacks in IoT," in 2025 International Conference on Intelligent Systems and Computational Networks (ICISCN), 2025, pp. 1-7: IEEE.
  200. S. Bindra, A. Malik, and S. Singh, "Improving Intrusion Detection for IoT Networks Using SMOTE and PCA on NSL-KDD Dataset," in 2025 3rd International Conference on Disruptive Technologies (ICDT), 2025, pp. 1623-1628: IEEE.
  201. R. Alshamy, M. J. I. J. o. C. N. AKCAYOL, and Communications, "INTRUSION DETECTION MODEL USING MACHINE LEARNING ALGORITHMS ON NSL-KDD DATASET," vol. 16, no. 6, 2024.
  202. B. Lampe and W. Meng, "can-train-and-test: A New CAN Intrusion Detection Dataset," in 2023 IEEE 98th Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC2023-Fall), 2023, pp. 1-7: IEEE.
  203. . CICIoV2024. Accessed: June. 22, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://www.unb.ca/cic/datasets/iov-dataset-2024.html
  204. H. Lee, S. H. Jeong, and H. K. Kim, "OTIDS: A novel intrusion detection system for in-vehicle network by using remote frame," in 2017 15th Annual Conference on Privacy, Security and Trust (PST), 2017, pp. 57-5709: IEEE.
  205. M. L. Han, B. I. Kwak, and H. K. Kim, "Anomaly intrusion detection method for vehicular networks based on survival analysis," Vehicular communications, vol. 14, pp. 52-63, 2018.
  206. C. Kaiser, A. Stocker, and A. Festl, "Automotive CAN bus data: an example dataset from the AEGIS big data project. Zenodo," ed, 2019.
  207. H. M. Song and H. K. Kim, "Discovering can specification using on-board diagnostics," IEEE Design & Test, vol. 38, no. 3, pp. 93-103, 2020.
  208. H. Kang, B. I. Kwak, Y. H. Lee, H. Lee, H. Lee, and H. K. Kim, "Car hacking and defense competition on in-vehicle network," in Workshop on Automotive and Autonomous Vehicle Security (AutoSec), 2021, vol. 2021, p. 25.
  209. U. o. Turku. (2021). Can bus dataset collected from a heavy-duty truck Fairdata,. [Online]. Available: https://etsin.fairdata.fi/dataset/7586f24fc91b- 41df-92af-283524de8b3e
  210. A. Azaria, A. Ekblaw, T. Vieira, and A. Lippman, "Medrec: Using blockchain for medical data access and permission management," in 2016 2nd international conference on open and big data (OBD), 2016, pp. 25-30: IEEE.
  211. L. A. Linn and M. B. Koo, "Blockchain for health data and its potential use in health it and health care related research," in ONC/NIST use of blockchain for healthcare and research workshop. Gaithersburg, Maryland, United States: ONC/NIST, 2016, pp. 1-10.
  212. A. Tumasjan, "The promise and prospects of blockchain-based decentralized business models," in Knowledge and digital technology: Springer Nature Switzerland Cham, 2024, pp. 203-224.
  213. N. J. D. B. Upadhyay, "Business models for the Blockchain: An empirical analysis," p. 100082, 2024.
  214. S. Schneider, M. Leyer, and M. J. I. T. o. E. M. Tate, "The transformational impact of blockchain technology on business models and ecosystems: A symbiosis of human and technology agents," vol. 67, no. 4, pp. 1184-1195, 2020.
  215. T. L. N. Dang and M. S. Nguyen, "An approach to data privacy in smart home using blockchain technology," in 2018 International Conference on Advanced Computing and Applications (ACOMP), 2018, pp. 58-64: IEEE.
  216. A. Qashlan, P. Nanda, X. He, and M. J. I. A. Mohanty, "Privacy-preserving mechanism in smart home using blockchain," vol. 9, pp. 103651- 103669, 2021.
  217. F. Sabrina, "Blockchain and structural relationship based access control for IoT: a smart city use case," in 2019 IEEE 44th Conference on Local Computer Networks (LCN), 2019, pp. 137-140: IEEE.
  218. I. Makhdoom, M. Abolhasan, J. Lipman, R. P. Liu, W. J. I. c. s. Ni, and tutorials, "Anatomy of threats to the internet of things," vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 1636-1675, 2018.
  219. S. Hakak, W. Z. Khan, G. A. Gilkar, M. Imran, and N. J. I. N. Guizani, "Securing smart cities through blockchain technology: Architecture, requirements, and challenges," vol. 34, no. 1, pp. 8-14, 2020.
  220. N. Ullah, W. Mugahed Al-Rahmi, A. I. Alzahrani, O. Alfarraj, and F. M. J. S. Alblehai, "Blockchain technology adoption in smart learning environments," vol. 13, no. 4, p. 1801, 2021.
  221. P. Bhaskar, C. K. Tiwari, A. J. I. T. Joshi, and S. Education, "Blockchain in education management: present and future applications," vol. 18, no. 1, pp. 1-17, 2021.
  222. U. Eaganathan, V. V. Indrian, and Y. Nathan, "Ideation framework of block chain adoption in Malaysia higher education," in Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 2019, vol. 1228, no. 1, p. 012072: IOP Publishing.
  223. M. Gottlieb, C. Deutsch, F. Hoops, H. Pongratz, H. J. B. R. Krcmar, and Applications, "Expedition to the Blockchain Application Potential for Higher Education Institutions," p. 100203, 2024.
  224. A. Z. Al-Marridi, A. Mohamed, A. J. J. o. N. Erbad, and C. Applications, "Optimized blockchain-based healthcare framework empowered by mixed multi-agent reinforcement learning," vol. 224, p. 103834, 2024.
  225. R. Dahiya et al., "A Blockchain Based Security system framework in Healthcare Domain using IoT," vol. 20, no. 3s, pp. 2039-2050, 2024.
  226. C. Prybila, S. Schulte, C. Hochreiner, and I. J. F. g. c. s. Weber, "Runtime verification for business processes utilizing the Bitcoin blockchain," vol. 107, pp. 816-831, 2020.
  227. A. Tchagna Kouanou et al., "Securing data in an internet of things network using blockchain technology: smart home case," vol. 3, no. 2, p. 167, 2022.
  228. A. Dorri, S. S. Kanhere, R. Jurdak, and P. Gauravaram, "Blockchain for IoT security and privacy: The case study of a smart home," in 2017 IEEE international conference on pervasive computing and communications workshops (PerCom workshops), 2017, pp. 618-623: IEEE.
  229. A. Di Vaio and L. J. I. J. o. I. M. Varriale, "Blockchain technology in supply chain management for sustainable performance: Evidence from the airport industry," vol. 52, p. 102014, 2020.
  230. Z. Liu and Z. J. I. j. o. i. m. Li, "A blockchain-based framework of cross-border e-commerce supply chain," vol. 52, p. 102059, 2020.
  231. S. Yadav, S. P. J. R. Singh, Conservation, and Recycling, "Blockchain critical success factors for sustainable supply chain," vol. 152, p. 104505, 2020.
  232. K. S. Divya et al., "Implementing Blockchain Based DApp for Secure Sharing of Students’ Credentials," in 2024 IEEE 9th International Conference for Convergence in Technology (I2CT), 2024, pp. 1-6: IEEE.
  233. G. Bjelobaba, A. Savić, T. Tošić, I. Stefanović, and B. J. S. Kocić, "Collaborative learning supported by Blockchain Technology as a model for improving the Educational process," vol. 15, no. 6, p. 4780, 2023.
  234. A. Odeh and A. J. A. S. Abu Taleb, "Ensemble-Based Deep Learning Models for Enhancing IoT Intrusion Detection," vol. 13, no. 21, p. 11985, 2023.
  235. K. N. Lawal, T. K. Olaniyi, and R. M. J. A. S. Gibson, "Leveraging Real-World Data from IoT Devices in a Fog–Cloud Architecture for Resource Optimisation within a Smart Building," vol. 14, no. 1, p. 316, 2023.
  236. P. Sethi, S. R. J. J. o. e. Sarangi, and c. engineering, "Internet of things: architectures, protocols, and applications," vol. 2017, no. 1, p. 9324035, 2017.
  237. R. Porkodi and V. Bhuvaneswari, "The internet of things (IOT) applications and communication enabling technology standards: An overview," in 2014 International conference on intelligent computing applications, 2014, pp. 324-329: IEEE.
  238. C. Sarkar, S. A. U. Nambi, R. V. Prasad, and A. Rahim, "A scalable distributed architecture towards unifying IoT applications," in 2014 IEEE World Forum on Internet of Things (WF-IoT), 2014, pp. 508-513: IEEE.
  239. M. Noaman, M. S. Khan, M. F. Abrar, S. Ali, A. Alvi, and M. A. J. S. P. Saleem, "Challenges in integration of heterogeneous internet of things," vol. 2022, no. 1, p. 8626882, 2022.
  240. M. Mukherjee, L. Shu, D. J. I. C. S. Wang, and Tutorials, "Survey of fog computing: Fundamental, network applications, and research challenges," vol. 20, no. 3, pp. 1826-1857, 2018.
  241. C. Sabri, L. Kriaa, and S. L. Azzouz, "Comparison of IoT constrained devices operating systems: A survey," in 2017 IEEE/ACS 14th International Conference on Computer Systems and Applications (AICCSA), 2017, pp. 369-375: IEEE.
  242. M. A. Musarat, W. S. Alaloul, A. M. Khan, S. Ayub, and N. J. R. i. E. Jousseaume, "A survey-based approach of framework development for improving the application of internet of things in the construction industry of Malaysia," p. 101823, 2024.
  243. H. Kuchuk and E. J. A. I. S. Malokhvii, "INTEGRATION OF IOT WITH CLOUD, FOG, AND EDGE COMPUTING: A REVIEW," vol. 8, no. 2, pp. 65-78, 2024.
  244. S. Li, L. D. Xu, and S. J. I. s. f. Zhao, "The internet of things: a survey," vol. 17, pp. 243-259, 2015.
  245. H. J. S. J. B. L. Hughes and Pol'y, "Blockchain and the future of secured transactions law," vol. 3, p. 21, 2020.
  246. E. J. B. Ganne, Big Data and C. Global Trade Law, "Blockchain’s Practical and Legal Implications for Global Trade and Global Trade Law," pp. 128-159, 2021.
  247. A. Bhattacharjya, X. Zhong, J. Wang, X. J. C.-P. S. a. Li, security, and application, "Security challenges and concerns of Internet of Things (IoT)," pp. 153-185, 2019.
  248. S. Quincozes, T. Emilio, and J. J. I. L. A. T. Kazienko, "MQTT protocol: fundamentals, tools and future directions," vol. 17, no. 09, pp. 1439- 1448, 2019.
  249. Y. Liu, J. Zhang, and J. J. C. C. Zhan, "Privacy protection for fog computing and the internet of things data based on blockchain," vol. 24, no. 2, pp. 1331-1345, 2021.
  250. E. Fazel, M. Z. Nezhad, J. Rezazadeh, M. Moradi, and J. J. I. o. T. Ayoade, "IoT convergence with machine learning & blockchain: A review," p. 101187, 2024.
  251. J. Andrew et al., "Blockchain for healthcare systems: Architecture, security challenges, trends and future directions," vol. 215, p. 103633, 2023.
  252. I. Fathail and V. D. Bhagile, "IoT based machine learning techniques for healthcare applications," in 2020 International Conference on Smart Innovations in Design, Environment, Management, Planning and Computing (ICSIDEMPC), 2020, pp. 248-252: IEEE.
  253. F. Girardi, G. De Gennaro, L. Colizzi, and N. J. E. Convertini, "Improving the healthcare effectiveness: The possible role of EHR, IoMT and blockchain," vol. 9, no. 6, p. 884, 2020.
  254. D. V. J. H. i. r. Dimitrov, "Medical internet of things and big data in healthcare," vol. 22, no. 3, pp. 156-163, 2016.
  255. M. J. G. D. o. E. Manavalan and Business, "Intersection of artificial intelligence, machine learning, and internet of things–an economic overview," vol. 9, no. 2, pp. 119-128, 2020.
  256. D. Bacciu, S. Chessa, C. Gallicchio, and A. Micheli, "On the need of machine learning as a service for the internet of things," in Proceedings of the 1st International Conference on Internet of Things and Machine Learning, 2017, pp. 1-8.
  257. Y. B. Zikria, M. K. Afzal, S. W. Kim, A. Marin, and M. J. C. C. Guizani, "Deep learning for intelligent IoT: Opportunities, challenges and solutions," vol. 164, ed: Elsevier, 2020, pp. 50-53.
  258. A. Rahman et al., "Smartblock-sdn: An optimized blockchain-sdn framework for resource management in iot," vol. 9, pp. 28361-28376, 2022.
  259. S. Rathore, B. W. Kwon, J. H. J. J. o. N. Park, and C. Applications, "BlockSecIoTNet: Blockchain-based decentralized security architecture for IoT network," vol. 143, pp. 167-177, 2019.
  260. H. Zhou, C. She, Y. Deng, M. Dohler, and A. J. I. W. C. Nallanathan, "Machine learning for massive industrial internet of things," vol. 28, no. 4, pp. 81-87, 2023.
  261. E. Münsing, J. Mather, and S. Moura, "Blockchains for decentralized optimization of energy resources in microgrid networks," in 2017 IEEE conference on control technology and applications (CCTA), 2019, pp. 2164-2171: IEEE.
  262. A. Aljabri, F. Jemili, O. J. I. J. o. C. Korbaa, and Applications, "Convolutional neural network for intrusion detection using blockchain technology," vol. 46, no. 2, pp. 67-77, 2024.
  263. K. Venkatesan and S. B. J. S. R. Rahayu, "Blockchain security enhancement: an approach towards hybrid consensus algorithms and machine learning techniques," vol. 14, no. 1, p. 1149, 2024.
  264. Y. Djenouri, G. Srivastava, A. Belhadi, and J. C. W. J. T. o. E. T. T. Lin, "Intelligent blockchain management for distributed knowledge graphs in IoT 5G environments," vol. 35, no. 4, p. e4332, 2024.
  265. B. Bordel, P. Lebigot, R. Alcarria, and T. Robles, "Digital food product traceability: using blockchain in the international commerce," in Digital Science, 2019, pp. 224-231: Springer.
  266. D. J. A. A. t. S. Azimov, Business, Innovation in Digital Economy, "Analysis of the international experience of implementing blockchain technology," vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 138-149, 2021.
  267. A. Hooper, D. J. R. o. I. B. Holtbrügge, and Strategy, "Blockchain technology in international business: changing the agenda for global governance," vol. 30, no. 2, pp. 183-200, 2020.
  268. G. J. E. p. y. p. Wood. (2014, 2014). Ethereum: A secure decentralised generalised transaction ledger Accessed: June. 22, 2025. [Online]. Available: https://files.gitter.im/ethereum/ yellowpaper/VIyt/Paper.pdf
  269. (29. Jan.2024). Hyperledger Open Source Blockchain Technologies. Accessed: June. 22, 2025. [Online] Available: https://www.hyperledger.org/
  270. D. Schwartz, N. Youngs, and A. J. R. L. I. W. P. Britto, "The ripple protocol consensus algorithm Accessed: June. 22, 2025. [Online].," vol. 5, no. 8, p. 151, 2014.
  271. U. o. Turku. (2021). Can bus dataset collected from a heavy-duty truck Fairdata,. [Online]. Available: https://etsin.fairdata.fi/dataset/7586f24fc91b- 41df-92af-283524de8b3e