SavedAdd your journal

Journals / Journal of Istanbul Veterinary Sciences / 2025 / Cilt: 9 Sayı: 3

Enterococcal infections and antimicrobial resistance in poultry

Shireen Yahya Abed Albu Amer(İSTANBUL ÜNİVERSİTESİ-CERRAHPAŞA, VETERİNER FAKÜLTESİ, VETERİNER PR.)0009-0003-4146-8750
Barış Halaç(İSTANBUL ÜNİVERSİTESİ-CERRAHPAŞA, VETERİNER FAKÜLTESİ, VETERİNER PR.)0000-0002-3067-9937
Kemal Metiner(ISTANBUL UNIVERSITY-CERRAHPASA, FACULTY OF VETERINARY MEDICINE, VETERINARY MEDICINE PR.)0000-0003-4105-5852
Pages
196–206
Publication Date
2025-12-31
🏛️Bibliographic metadata and full text access for this article are provided via DergiPark.
DergiPark Record ↗
✨

AI Summary & Key Takeaways

AI Insight
⚡ TL;DR(Too Long; Didn't Read)

We further highlight the necessity of adopting a comprehensive, multidisciplinary “One Health” approach to promote effective solutions within veterinary medicine and safeguard both animal and human health.

📌 3 Key Takeaways

🎯
Objective & Hypothesis:Enterococcus species were initially regarded as primary commensal microorganisms constituting a major component of the gastrointestinal microbiota in avian and mammalian hosts.
📊
Key Findings & Data:However, over the years, pathogenic Enterococcus strains have emerged as significant causes of morbidity and mortality in broiler production, frequently leading to recurrent outbreaks.
💡
Conclusion & Impact:We further highlight the necessity of adopting a comprehensive, multidisciplinary “One Health” approach to promote effective solutions within veterinary medicine and safeguard both animal and human health.
🔬Design:Review & Systematic Survey
📍Scope:Comprehensive Sample
⚙️Variables:atimicrobial resistance · Enterococcus spp. · poultry

Abstract

Enterococcus species were initially regarded as primary commensal microorganisms constituting a major component of the gastrointestinal microbiota in avian and mammalian hosts. However, over the years, pathogenic Enterococcus strains have emerged as significant causes of morbidity and mortality in broiler production, frequently leading to recurrent outbreaks. Enterococcus spp. also act as opportunistic pathogens, responsible for septicemia, endocarditis, osteomyelitis, and neurological disorders in poultry and parrots. Enterococcus are particularly notable for their remarkable capacity to develop and disseminate antimicrobial resistance. Among them, vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE) pose a serious, life-threatening concern for both animal and human health. Furthermore, the routine and periodic use of antibiotics in poultry farming has promoted the emergence of multidrug-resistant strains, thereby limiting treatment options and heightening zoonotic risks. Comparative genomic analyses have demonstrated that highly pathogenic Enterococcal strains exhibit strong genetic relatedness and share numerous virulence-associated genes. These pathogenic strains typically display higher antimicrobial resistance levels than their commensal counterparts. In this state-of-the-art review, we examine the current understanding of the distribution patterns, pathogenic potential, and antimicrobial resistance profiles of Enterococcus strains derived from poultry, emphasizing the importance of multidisciplinary approaches and their global implications for animal and public health. Our conclusions emphasize the urgent need for stricter regulations governing antibiotic use in poultry production and the development of innovative strategies to mitigate the escalating threat posed by antibiotic-resistant Enterococcus strains. We further highlight the necessity of adopting a comprehensive, multidisciplinary “One Health” approach to promote effective solutions within veterinary medicine and safeguard both animal and human health.

Özet

Enterococcus species were initially regarded as primary commensal microorganisms constituting a major component of the gastrointestinal microbiota in avian and mammalian hosts. However, over the years, pathogenic Enterococcus strains have emerged as significant causes of morbidity and mortality in broiler production, frequently leading to recurrent outbreaks. Enterococcus spp. also act as opportunistic pathogens, responsible for septicemia, endocarditis, osteomyelitis, and neurological disorders in poultry and parrots. Enterococcus are particularly notable for their remarkable capacity to develop and disseminate antimicrobial resistance. Among them, vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE) pose a serious, life-threatening concern for both animal and human health. Furthermore, the routine and periodic use of antibiotics in poultry farming has promoted the emergence of multidrug-resistant strains, thereby limiting treatment options and heightening zoonotic risks. Comparative genomic analyses have demonstrated that highly pathogenic Enterococcal strains exhibit strong genetic relatedness and share numerous virulence-associated genes. These pathogenic strains typically display higher antimicrobial resistance levels than their commensal counterparts. In this state-of-the-art review, we examine the current understanding of the distribution patterns, pathogenic potential, and antimicrobial resistance profiles of Enterococcus strains derived from poultry, emphasizing the importance of multidisciplinary approaches and their global implications for animal and public health. Our conclusions emphasize the urgent need for stricter regulations governing antibiotic use in poultry production and the development of innovative strategies to mitigate the escalating threat posed by antibiotic-resistant Enterococcus strains. We further highlight the necessity of adopting a comprehensive, multidisciplinary “One Health” approach to promote effective solutions within veterinary medicine and safeguard both animal and human health.

🔖

Cite This Article

Amer, S. Y. A. A., Halaç, B., Metiner, K. (2025). Enterococcal infections and antimicrobial resistance in poultry. Journal of Istanbul Veterinary Sciences, Cilt: 9 Sayı: 3, 196–206. https://doi.org/10.30704/http-www-jivs-net.1678262

📄 Full Text PDF Viewer

📄

PDF görüntüleyici hazırlanıyor...

References (89)

  1. Abdelrahman, K. A., Kashef, M. T., Aziz, R. K., & Hashem, Y. A. (2024). Genotype–phenotype correlation of fecal Streptococcus regulator (fsr) locus with gelatinase activity and biofilm formation intensity in clinical E. faecalis isolates. Future Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 10(1), 37.
  2. Ahmed, M. O., & Baptiste, K. E. (2018). Vancomycin-resistant enterococci: a review of antimicrobial resistance mechanisms and perspectives of human and animal health. Microbial Drug Resistance, 24(5), 590-606.
  3. Alzahrani, O. M., Fayez, M., Alswat, A. S., Alkafafy, M., Mahmoud, S. F., Al-Marri, T.,. & Yusuf, S. (2022). Antimicrobial resistance, biofilm formation, and virulence genes in Enterococcus species from small backyard chicken flocks. Antibiotics, 11(3), 380.
  4. Bagcigil, AF. Koenhemsi L, Çelik B, Metiner K, Or ME, Ak S (2016) Examination of vancomycin-resistant Enterococci (VRE) isolated from canine and feline rectal swabs. Journal of Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Istanbul University, 42(2), 111-116
  5. Batra, A. R., Cottam, D., Lepesteur, M., Dexter, C., Zuccala, K., Martino, C.,. & Soni, S. K. (2023). Development of a rapid, low-cost portable detection assay for enterococci in waste water and environmental aters. Microorganisms, 11(2), 381.
  6. Braïek, O.B. and Smaoui, S. 2019. Enterococci: between emerging pathogens and potential probiotics. BioMed research international, 2019, 5938210.
  7. Cabral, B. G., Davies, Y. M., Menão, M. C., Saidenberg, A., Gomes, V. T. M., Moreno, L. Z.,. & Knöbl, T. (2020). Companion psittacine birds as reservoir of gentamicin and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus spp. Pesquisa Veterinária Brasileira, 40, 129-133.
  8. Cagnoli, G., Bertelloni, F., Interrante, P., Ceccherelli, R., Marzoni, M., & Ebani, V. V. (2022). Antimicrobial-resistant Enterococcus spp. in wild avifauna from central Italy. Antibiotics, 11(7), 852.
  9. Carvajal, E., Contreras, S., Díaz, W., Martinez-Bello, D., McCown, M., Ardila, Y., & Vásquez, M. C. (2023). Enterococcus isolated from poultry intestine for potential probiotic use. Veterinary World, 16(8), 1605.
  10. Cebeci, T. (2024). Species prevalence, virulence genes, and antibiotic resistance of enterococci from food-producing animals at a slaughterhouse in Turkey. Scientific reports, 14(1), 13191.
  11. Chajęcka-Wierzchowska, W., Zadernowska, A. and Łaniewska-Trokenheim, Ł., 2017. Virulence factors of Enterococcus spp. presented in food. LWT-Food Science and Technology, 100, 670-676.
  12. CLSI. Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (2020). Performance Standards for Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing. 30th Edition, M100.
  13. CLSI. Performance Standards for Antimicrobial Disk and Dilution Susceptiblity Tests for Bacteria Isolated from Animals; Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute: Wayne, PA, USA, 2018.
  14. Comerlato, C. B., Ritter, A. C., Miyamoto, K. N., & Brandelli, A. (2020). Proteomic study of Enterococcus durans LAB18S growing on prebiotic oligosaccharides. Food Microbiology, 89, 103430.
  15. Cybulska, K., & Krzyśko-Łupicka, T. (2020). Antibiotics Resistance in Isolates From Poultry Waste. Ecological Chemistry and Engineering S, 27(2), 305-316.
  16. De Jong, A., El Garch, F., Hocquet, D., Prenger-Berninghoff, E., Dewulf, J., Migura-Garcia, L.,. & EASSA Study Group Ocak Marion Butty Pascal Klee Rebecca Dr Schiffer Guido Dr Stevenin Clelia Dr Serreyn Pieter-Jan Dr Temmerman Robin Dr. (2022). European-wide antimicrobial resistance monitoring in commensal Escherichia coli isolated from healthy food animals between 2004 and 2018. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 77(12), 3301-3311.
  17. Dec, M., Stępień-Pyśniak, D., Gnat, S., Fratini, F., Urban-Chmiel, R., Cerri, D.,. & Turchi, B. (2020). Antibiotic susceptibility and virulence genes in Enterococcus isolates from wild mammals living in Tuscany, Italy. Microbial Drug Resistance, 26(5), 505-519.
  18. Do, A. D. T., Anthney, A., Alharbi, K., Asnayanti, A., Meuter, A., & Alrubaye, A. A. K. (2024). Assessing the Impact of Spraying an Enterococcus faecium-Based Probiotic on Day-Old Broiler Chicks at Hatch on the Incidence of Bacterial Chondronecrosis with Osteomyelitis Lameness Using a Staphylococcus Challenge Model. Animals, 14(9), 1369.
  19. Dolka, B., Czopowicz, M., Chrobak-Chmiel, D., Ledwoń, A., & Szeleszczuk, P. (2020). Prevalence, antibiotic susceptibility and virulence factors of Enterococcus species in racing pigeons (Columba livia f. domestica). BMC Veterinary Research, 16, 1-14.
  20. Dolka, B., Czopowicz, M., Dolka, I., & Szeleszczuk, P. (2022). Chicken embryo lethality assay for determining the lethal dose, tissue distribution and pathogenicity of clinical Enterococcus cecorum isolates from poultry. Scientific Reports, 12(1), 10675.
  21. Dolka, B.; Gołȩbiewska-Kosakowska, M.; Krajewski, K.; Kwieciński, P.; Nowak, T.; Szubstarski, J.; Wilczyński, J.; Szeleszczuk, P. (2017). Occurrence of Enterococcus spp. in poultry in Poland based on 2014-2015 data. Medycyna Weterynaryjna. 73, 220–224.
  22. Fisher, K., & Phillips, C. (2009). The ecology, epidemiology, and virulence of Enterococcus. Microbiology, 155(6), 1749-1757.
  23. García-Solache, M., & Rice, L. B. (2019). The Enterococcus: a model of adaptability to its environment. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 32(2), 10-1128.
  24. Goh, H.S., Yong, M.A., Chong, K.K.L. and Kline, K.A., 2017. Model systems for the study of Enterococcal colonization and infection. Virulence, 8, 1525-1562.
  25. González Martín, M. R., Suárez-Pérez, A., Álamo-Peña, A., Valverde Tercedor, C., Corbera, J. A., & Tejedor-Junco, M. T. (2024). Antimicrobial Susceptibility of Enterococci Isolated from Nestlings of Wild Birds Feeding in Supplementary Feeding Stations: The Case of the Canarian Egyptian Vulture. Pathogens, 13(10), 855.
  26. Hachem, Y., Djouadi, L. N., Raddaoui, A., Boukli-Hacene, F., Boumerdassi, H., Achour, W., & Nateche, F. (2024). Phenotypic and molecular characterization of vancomycin resistant enterococci from wild birds: first detection of a plasmid-borne van C1 in Enterococcus faecalis. Letters in Applied Microbiology, 77(10), ovae098.
  27. Halder, N., Sunder, J., De, A. K., Bhattacharya, D., & Joardar, S. N. (2024). Probiotics in poultry: a comprehensive review. The Journal of Basic and Applied Zoology, 85(1), 23.
  28. Hasan, K.A.; Ali, S.A.; Rehman, M.; Bin-Asif, H.; Zahid, S. (2018). The unravelled Enterococcus faecalis zoonotic superbugs: Emerging multiple resistant and virulent lineages isolated from poultry environment. Zoonoses Public Health 65, 921–935.
  29. Hashem, Y.A., Abdelrahman, K.A. and Aziz, R.K., 2021. Phenotype–genotype correlations and distribution of key virulence factors in Enterococcus faecalis isolated from patients with urinary tract infections. Infection and Drug Resistance, 1713-1723.
  30. Isichei-Ukah, B.O., Akinnibosun, O., Nwaka, C.N. and Igbinosa, E.O., 2024. A survey of antibiotic resistance and virulence factors in Enterococcus species isolated from poultry farms in Benin City, Nigeria. African Journal of Clinical and Experimental Microbiology, 25, 75-85.
  31. Ji, T., Wang, W., Wang, L., Gao, Y., Wang, Y., & Gao, X. (2024). Development and application of a rapid visual detection technique for VanA gene in vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium. Msphere, 9(10), e00666-24.
  32. Jiménez, E., et al. (2013). "Validation of a PCR Assay for the Detection of Enterococcus faecalis and Enterococcus faecium in Clinical Isolates." Journal of Clinical Microbiology.
  33. Jung, A., Chen, L. R., Suyemoto, M. M., Barnes, H. J., & Borst, L. B. (2018). A review of Enterococcus cecorum infection in poultry. Avian diseases, 62(3), 261-271.
  34. Khalifa, A., & Ibrahim, H. I. M. (2023). Enterococcus faecium from chicken feces improves chicken immune response and alleviates Salmonella infections: A pilot study. Journal of Animal Science, 101, skad016.
  35. Klibi, N., Ben Amor, I., Rahmouni, M., Dziri, R., Douja, G., Ben Said, L.,. & Torres, C. (2015). Diversity of species and antibiotic resistance among fecal enterococci from wild birds in Tunisia. Detection of vanA-containing Enterococcus faecium isolates. European journal of wildlife research, 61(2), 319-323.
  36. Kwit, R., Zając, M., Śmiałowska-Węglińska, A., Skarżyńska, M., Bomba, A., Lalak, A.,. & Wasyl, D. (2023). Prevalence of Enterococcus spp. and the whole-genome characteristics of Enterococcus faecium and Enterococcus faecalis strains isolated from free-living birds in Poland. Pathogens, 12(6), 836.
  37. Ledesma, P., Parada, R., Vallejo, M., & Marguet, E. (2015). Factores de virulencia de cepas de Enterococcus aisladas de aves silvestres y de corral en la Patagonia. Analecta Veterinaria, 35, 5-12.
  38. Lee, Y.Y., Ha, J., Kim, Y.S., Ramani, S., Sung, S., Gil, E.S., Choo, O.S., Jang, J.H. and Choung, Y.H., 2023. Abnormal cholesterol metabolism and lysosomal dysfunction induce age-related hearing loss by inhibiting mTORC1-TFEB-dependent autophagy. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 24, 17513.
  39. Lengfelder, I. Sava, I.G.; Hansen, J.J.; Kleigrewe, K.; Herzog, J.; Neuhaus, K.; Hofmann, T.; Sartor, R.B.; Haller, D. (2019). Complex bacterial consortia reprogram the colitogenic activity of Enterococcus faecalis in a gnotobiotic mouse model of chronic, immunemediated colitis. Frontiers in Immunology. 10, 1420.
  40. Leong, S. S., Lihan, S., & Chia, H. C. (2020). Virulence genes detection among the antibiotic resistant Enterococcus faecalis isolated from bird industry in Borneo. Pertanika Journal of Science and Technology, 28, 673-687.
  41. Marques, J.M., Coelho, M., Santana, A.R., Pinto, D. and Semedo-Lemsaddek, T., 2023. Dissemination of Enterococcal genetic lineages: a one health perspective. Antibiotics, 12, 1140.
  42. McDevitt, E., Khan, F., Scasny, A., Thompson, C. D., Eichenbaum, Z., McDaniel, L. S., & Vidal, J. E. (2020). Hydrogen Peroxide Production by Streptococcus pneumoniae Results in Alpha-hemolysis by Oxidation of Oxy-hemoglobin to Met-hemoglobin. Msphere, 5(6), 10-1128.
  43. Miller, WR. Munita JM, Arias CA. (2014). Mechanism of antibiotic resistance in enterococci. Expert Review of Anti-infective Therapy. 12(10):1221-36.
  44. Miranda, J.M. Guarddon, M. Vázquez, B.I. Fente, C.A. Barros-Velázquez, J. Cepeda, A.; Franco, C.M. (2007). Antimicrobial resistance in Enterobacteriaceae strains isolated from organic chicken, conventional chicken and conventional turkey meat: A comparative survey. Journal of Food Protection. 70, 412–416.
  45. Murray, P. R., Rosenthal, K. S., & Pfaller, M. A. (2015). Medical Microbiology E-Book: Medical Microbiology E-Book. Elsevier Health Sciences.
  46. Mwikuma, G., Kainga, H., Kallu, S. A., Nakajima, C., Suzuki, Y., & Hang’ombe, B. M. (2023). Determination of the prevalence and antimicrobial resistance of Enterococcus faecalis and Enterococcus faecium associated with poultry in four districts in Zambia. Antibiotics, 12(4), 657.
  47. Partridge, S. R., Kwong, S. M., Firth, N., & Jensen, S. O. (2018). Mobile genetic elements associated with antimicrobial resistance. Clinical microbiology reviews, 31(4), 10-1128.
  48. Radhouani, H., Silva, N., Poeta, P., Torres, C., Correia, S., & Igrejas, G. (2014). Potential impact of antimicrobial resistance in wildlife, environment and human health. Frontiers in Microbiology, 5, 23.
  49. Rashid, H., Zaidi, A., Anwar, M. A., & Tariq, M. (2023). A synbiotic made of an autochthonous Enterococcus durans strain and microbial polysaccharides improves broiler chicken health. Journal of Agriculture and Food Research, 14, 100812.
  50. Rhoads, D. D., Pummill, J., & Alrubaye, A. A. K. (2024). Molecular genomic analyses of Enterococcus cecorum from sepsis outbreaks in broilers. Microorganisms, 12(2), 250.
  51. Ribeiro, J., Silva, V., Monteiro, A., Vieira-Pinto, M., Igrejas, G., Reis, F. S.,. & Poeta, P. (2023). Antibiotic resistance among gastrointestinal bacteria in broilers: A review focused on Enterococcus spp. and Escherichia coli. Animals, 13(8), 1362.
  52. Rodríguez-Beltrán, J., DelaFuente, J., León-Sampedro, R., MacLean, R. C., & San Millán, Á. (2021). Beyond horizontal gene transfer: the role of plasmids in bacterial evolution. Nature Reviews Microbiology, 19(6), 347-359.
  53. Roy, K. Islam, M.S. Paul, A.; Ievy, S.; Talukder, M.; Sobur, M.A.; Ballah, F.M.; Khan, M.S.R.; Rahman, M.T. (2022). Molecular detection and antibiotyping of multi-drug resistant Enterococcus faecium from healthy broiler chickens in Bangladesh. Veterinary Medicine and Science. 8, 200–210.
  54. Růžičková, M. Vítězová M, Kushkevych I. (2020). The Characterization of Enterococcus Genus: Resistance Mechanisms and Inflammatory Bowel Disease. Open Med (Wars). 15,211- 224.
  55. Saad, M., Hamoud, M. M., Orabi, A., Amin, R., & Samir, A. (2024). Virulence determinants and antimicrobial resistance in Enterococcus faecalis isolated from hatcheries. Veterinary Medical Journal (Giza), 70(1), 1-17
  56. Schreier, J., Rautenschlein, S., & Jung, A. (2021). Different virulence levels of Enterococcus cecorum strains in experimentally infected meat-type chickens. PLoS One, 16(11), e0259904.
  57. Schulze, A., Mitterer, F., Pombo, J.P. and Schild, S., 2021. Biofilms by bacterial human pathogens: Clinical relevance-development, composition and regulation-therapeutical strategies. Microbial Cell, 8, 28.
  58. Sharma, A., Lee, S. and Park, Y.S., 2020. Molecular typing tools for identifying and characterizing lactic acid bacteria: a review. Food science and biotechnology, 29, 1301-1318.
  59. Siddique, A., Ali, R., Andleeb, S., Akbar, S., Hafeez, Z., Imran, M.,. & Rahman, A. (2025). Host Associated Probiotics Lactobacillus reuteri and Enterococcus faecium Mitigate Multidrug Resistant Salmonella enterica in Broiler Chicks. Microbial Pathogenesis, 107859.
  60. Sigirci, B. D., Celik, B., Halac, B., Kahraman, B. B., Bagcigil, A. F., & Ak, S. (2021). Characterization of Faecal Enterococci from Wild Birds in Turkey and Its Importance in Antimicrobial Resistance. Journal of the Hellenic Veterinary Medical Society, 72(3), 3015-3022.
  61. Song, H., Bae, Y., Jeon, E., Kwon, Y., & Joh, S. (2019). Multiplex PCR analysis of virulence genes and their influence on antibiotic resistance in Enterococcus spp. isolated from broiler chicken. Journal of Veterinary Science, 20(3).
  62. Soodmand, J., Zeinali, T., Kalidari, G., Hashemitabar, & Razmyar, J. (2018). Antimicrobial susceptibility profile of Enterococcus species isolated from companion birds and poultry in the Northeast of Iran. Archives of Razi Institute, 73(3), 207-213.
  63. Souillard, R., Laurentie, J., Kempf, I., Le Caër, V., Le Bouquin, S., Serror, P., & Allain, V. (2022). Increasing incidence of Enterococcus-associated diseases in poultry in France over the past 15 years. Veterinary Microbiology, 269, 109426.
  64. Spiegelman, L., Bahn-Suh, A., Montaño, E.T., Zhang, L., Hura, G.L., Patras, K.A., Kumar, A., Tezcan, F.A., Nizet, V., Tsutakawa, S.E. and Ghosh, P., 2022. Strengthening of enterococcal biofilms by Esp. PLoS Pathogens, 18, e1010829.
  65. Stępień-Pyśniak, D., Hauschild, T., Kosikowska, U., Dec, M., & Urban-Chmiel, R. (2019). Biofilm formation capacity and presence of virulence factors among commensal Enterococcus spp. from wild birds. Scientific reports, 9(1), 11204.
  66. Too, E., Masila, E., 2024. The Interconnection between Virulence Factors, Biofilm Formation, and Horizontal Gene Transfer in Enterococcus: A Review.
  67. Ugwu, I. C., Bridget Chukwudile, U., & Clifford Ugwu, C. (2023). Molecular Determinants of Virulence and Antimicrobial Resistance among Enterococcus Species Isolated from Chickens. Poultry Science Journal, 11(1), 47-57.
  68. Velhner, M., Prunić, B., Aleksić, N., Todorović, D., Knežević, S., & Ljubojević Pelić, D. (2024). Antimicrobial resistance of Enterococcus isolates from poultry farms in the Republic of Serbia (Autonomous Province of Vojvodina). Microorganisms, 12(7), 1483.
  69. Vittecoq, M., Godreuil, S., Prugnolle, F., Durand, P., Brazier, L., Renaud, N.,. & Renaud, F. (2016). Antimicrobial resistance in wildlife. Journal of Applied Ecology, 53(2), 519-529.
  70. Wada, Y., Harun, A., Yean, C. Y., & Zaidah, A. R. (2023). A Nanoplex PCR assay for the simultaneous detection of vancomycin-and linezolid-resistant genes in Enterococcus. Diagnostics, 13(4), 722.
  71. Wang, W., Dang, G., Hao, W., Li, A., Zhang, H., Guan, S., & Ma, T. (2024). Dietary Supplementation of Compound Probiotics Improves Intestinal Health by Modulated Microbiota and Its SCFA Products as Alternatives to In-Feed Antibiotics. Probiotics and Antimicrobial Proteins, 1-16.
  72. Wu, Y., Wang, C.W., Wang, D. and Wei, N., 2021. A whole-cell biosensor for point-of-care detection of waterborne bacterial pathogens. ACS synthetic biology, 10, 333-344.
  73. Xu, M. Q., Pan, F., Peng, L. H., & Yang, Y. S. (2024). Advances in the isolation, cultivation, and identification of gut microbes. Military Medical Research, 11(1), 34.
  74. Yahia, H. B., Chairat, S., Hamdi, N., Gharsa, H., Sallem, R. B., Ceballos, S.,. & Slama, K. B. (2018). Antimicrobial resistance and genetic lineages of faecal enterococci of wild birds: Emergence of vanA and vanB2 harbouring Enterococcus faecalis. International journal of antimicrobial agents, 52(6), 936-941.
  75. Yıldırım, D. S. (2015). Fekal ve klinik örneklerden soyutlanan enterokok kökenlerinin antibiyotik duyarlılıklarının saptanması (Master's thesis, Balikesir University (Turkey).
  76. Yu, L., Liu, Y., Liu, M., Li, Z., Li, L., & Wang, F. (2022). Research Note: Molecular characterization of antimicrobial resistance and virulence gene analysis of Enterococcus faecalis in poultry in Tai'an, China. Poultry Science, 101(5), 101763.
  77. Zou, J., Tang, Z., Yan, J., Liu, H., Chen, Y., Zhang, D., Zhao, J., Tang, Y., Zhang, J. and Xia, Y., 2020. Dissemination of linezolid resistance through sex pheromone plasmid transfer in Enterococcus faecalis. Frontiers in Microbiology, 11, 1185.
  78. Alzahrani, O. M., Fayez, M., Alswat, A. S., Alkafafy, M., Mahmoud, S. F., Al-Marri, T.,. & Yusuf, S. (2022). Antimicrobial resistance, biofilm formation, and virulence genes in Enterococcus species from small backyard chicken flocks. Antibiotics, 11(3), 380.
  79. Bagcigil, AF. Koenhemsi L, Çelik B, Metiner K, Or ME, Ak S (2016) Examination of vancomycin-resistant Enterococci (VRE) isolated from canine and feline rectal swabs. Journal of Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Istanbul University, 42(2), 111-116
  80. Batra, A. R., Cottam, D., Lepesteur, M., Dexter, C., Zuccala, K., Martino, C.,. & Soni, S. K. (2023). Development of a rapid, low-cost portable detection assay for enterococci in waste water and environmental aters. Microorganisms, 11(2), 381.
  81. Cabral, B. G., Davies, Y. M., Menão, M. C., Saidenberg, A., Gomes, V. T. M., Moreno, L. Z.,. & Knöbl, T. (2020). Companion psittacine birds as reservoir of gentamicin and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus spp. Pesquisa Veterinária Brasileira, 40, 129-133.
  82. De Jong, A., El Garch, F., Hocquet, D., Prenger-Berninghoff, E., Dewulf, J., Migura-Garcia, L.,. & EASSA Study Group Ocak Marion Butty Pascal Klee Rebecca Dr Schiffer Guido Dr Stevenin Clelia Dr Serreyn Pieter-Jan Dr Temmerman Robin Dr. (2022). European-wide antimicrobial resistance monitoring in commensal Escherichia coli isolated from healthy food animals between 2004 and 2018. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 77(12), 3301-3311.
  83. Dec, M., Stępień-Pyśniak, D., Gnat, S., Fratini, F., Urban-Chmiel, R., Cerri, D.,. & Turchi, B. (2020). Antibiotic susceptibility and virulence genes in Enterococcus isolates from wild mammals living in Tuscany, Italy. Microbial Drug Resistance, 26(5), 505-519.
  84. Klibi, N., Ben Amor, I., Rahmouni, M., Dziri, R., Douja, G., Ben Said, L.,. & Torres, C. (2015). Diversity of species and antibiotic resistance among fecal enterococci from wild birds in Tunisia. Detection of vanA-containing Enterococcus faecium isolates. European journal of wildlife research, 61(2), 319-323.
  85. Kwit, R., Zając, M., Śmiałowska-Węglińska, A., Skarżyńska, M., Bomba, A., Lalak, A.,. & Wasyl, D. (2023). Prevalence of Enterococcus spp. and the whole-genome characteristics of Enterococcus faecium and Enterococcus faecalis strains isolated from free-living birds in Poland. Pathogens, 12(6), 836.
  86. Ribeiro, J., Silva, V., Monteiro, A., Vieira-Pinto, M., Igrejas, G., Reis, F. S.,. & Poeta, P. (2023). Antibiotic resistance among gastrointestinal bacteria in broilers: A review focused on Enterococcus spp. and Escherichia coli. Animals, 13(8), 1362.
  87. Siddique, A., Ali, R., Andleeb, S., Akbar, S., Hafeez, Z., Imran, M.,. & Rahman, A. (2025). Host Associated Probiotics Lactobacillus reuteri and Enterococcus faecium Mitigate Multidrug Resistant Salmonella enterica in Broiler Chicks. Microbial Pathogenesis, 107859.
  88. Vittecoq, M., Godreuil, S., Prugnolle, F., Durand, P., Brazier, L., Renaud, N.,. & Renaud, F. (2016). Antimicrobial resistance in wildlife. Journal of Applied Ecology, 53(2), 519-529.
  89. Yahia, H. B., Chairat, S., Hamdi, N., Gharsa, H., Sallem, R. B., Ceballos, S.,. & Slama, K. B. (2018). Antimicrobial resistance and genetic lineages of faecal enterococci of wild birds: Emergence of vanA and vanB2 harbouring Enterococcus faecalis. International journal of antimicrobial agents, 52(6), 936-941.