SavedAdd your journal

Journals / Eğitim Teknolojisi Kuram ve Uygulama / 2025 / Cilt: 15 Sayı: 2

EXAMINING STUDENTS’ ONLINE MOTIVATION AND COMMITMENT LEVELS

ÖĞRENCİLERİN ÇEVRİMİÇİ MOTİVASYON VE BAĞLILIK DÜZEYLERİNİN İNCELENMESİ

Mücahit Öztürk(AKSARAY ÜNİVERSİTESİ, EĞİTİM FAKÜLTESİ)0000-0003-4293-9086
Pınar Mıhcı Türker(AKSARAY ÜNİVERSİTESİ, EĞİTİM FAKÜLTESİ)0000-0002-2382-3806
Pages
210–237
Publication Date
2025-07-19
🏛️Bibliographic metadata and full text access for this article are provided via DergiPark.
DergiPark Record ↗
✨

AI Summary & Key Takeaways

AI Insight
⚡ TL;DR(Too Long; Didn't Read)

According to the results, students' levels of motivation towards online learning range between moderate and high levels, while their online engagement levels are above the moderate level.

📌 3 Key Takeaways

🎯
Objective & Hypothesis:This study aims to determine the levels of motivation towards online learning and online engagement among university students, as well as the relationship between these levels.
📊
Key Findings & Data:The study was conducted with 279 undergraduate students.
💡
Conclusion & Impact:According to the results, students' levels of motivation towards online learning range between moderate and high levels, while their online engagement levels are above the moderate level.
🔬Design:Survey & Empirical Study
📍Scope:Comprehensive Sample
⚙️Variables:çevrimiçi öğrenme · motivasyon · çevrimiçi bağlılık

Abstract

This study aims to determine the levels of motivation towards online learning and online engagement among university students, as well as the relationship between these levels. In this context, a survey model was employed. The study was conducted with 279 undergraduate students. Data were collected from students using the Online Learning Self-Efficacy Scale and the Online Student Engagement Scale. According to the results, students' levels of motivation towards online learning range between moderate and high levels, while their online engagement levels are above the moderate level. In terms of gender, although female students exhibit higher levels of motivation, no significant difference was found; however, it was determined that the online motivation of third-year students is significantly lower compared to second and fourth-year students. When examining students' online engagement, it was observed that female students' overall online engagement and skill-related engagement levels are significantly higher than those of male students. Regarding the grade levels, it is noteworthy that fourth-year students exhibit significantly higher online engagement compared to second and third-year students. Significant positive relationships exist between students' online learning motivations and their online engagement, as well as its sub-factors.

Özet

Bu çalışmada üniversite öğrencilerinin çevrimiçi öğrenmeye yönelik motivasyon düzeyleri ile çevrimiçi bağlılık düzeyleri ve bu düzeyler arasındaki ilişki saptanmak istenmektedir. Bu bağlamda nicel araştırma modellerinden tarama deseni kullanılmıştır. Çalışma 279 lisans öğrencisi ile gerçekleştirilmiştir. Öğrencilerden veriler Çevrimiçi Öğrenmeye Yönelik Öz-yeterlik ve Çevrimiçi Öğrenci Bağlılık Ölçeği ile toplanmıştır. Buna göre öğrencilerin çevrimiçi öğrenmeye yönelik motivasyon düzeyleri orta ve yüksek düzey arasında; çevrimiçi bağlılıkları orta düzeyin üstündedir. Cinsiyet açısından kadın öğrencilerin motivasyon düzeyleri yüksek olsa da anlamlı bir farklılık bulunmamış, ancak 3. sınıf öğrencilerinin çevrimiçi motivasyonlarının 2. ve 4. sınıf öğrencilerine göre anlamlı şekilde daha düşük olduğu belirlenmiştir. Öğrencilerin çevrimiçi bağlılıklarına bakıldığında; kadın öğrencilerin çevrimiçi genel bağlılıkları ve beceriye ilişkin bağlılık düzeyleri erkek öğrencilere göre anlamlı şekilde daha yüksek çıkmıştır. Sınıf düzeyleri açısından öğrencilerin çevrimiçi bağlılıkları değerlendirildiğinde 4. sınıf öğrencilerin 2. sınıf ve 3. sınıf öğrencilerine göre anlamlı şekilde yüksek olması dikkat çekicidir. Öğrencilerin çevrimiçi öğrenme motivasyonları ile çevrimiçi bağlılık ve alt faktörleri açısından anlamlı pozitif ilişkiler söz konusudur.

🔖

Cite This Article

Öztürk, M., Türker, P. M. (2025). EXAMINING STUDENTS’ ONLINE MOTIVATION AND COMMITMENT LEVELS. Eğitim Teknolojisi Kuram ve Uygulama, Cilt: 15 Sayı: 2, 210–237. https://doi.org/10.17943/etku.1630686

📄 Full Text PDF Viewer

📄

PDF görüntüleyici hazırlanıyor...

References (90)

  1. Akdağ Kurnaz, E., & Arı, A. (2024). University student’s opinions on distance education during the Covid-19 pandemic. Anatolian Journal of Education, 9(1), 97-112. https://doi.org/ 10.29333/aje.2024.917a
  2. Alemayehu, L., & Chen, H. L. (2023). The influence of motivation on learning engagement: The mediating role of learning self-efficacy and self-monitoring in online learning environments. Interactive Learning Environments, 31(7), 4605-4618. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2021.1977962
  3. Al-Areibi, I., Dickson, B. A., & Kotsopoulos, D. (2022). An Analysis of Synchronous and Asynchronous Online Undergraduate Motivation during the COVID Pandemic. International Journal of E-Learning & Distance Education, 37(1). https://doi.org/10.55667/ijede.2022.v37.i1.1213
  4. Appleton, J. J., Christenson, S. L., & Furlong, M. J. (2008). Student engagement with school: critical conceptual and methodological issues of the construct. Psychology in the Schools, 45(5), 369–386. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.20303.
  5. Aragon, S. R. (2003). Creating social presence in online environments. New directions for adult and continuing education, 100, 57-68. https://doi.org/10.1002/ace.119
  6. Audet, É., Levine, S., Dubois, P., Koestner, S., & Koestner, R. (2023). The Unanticipated Virtual Year: How the Big 5 Personality Traits of Openness to Experience and Conscientiousness Impacted Engagement in Online Classes during the COVID-19 Crisis. Journal of College Reading and Learning, 53(4), 298-315. https://doi.org/10.1080/10790195.2023.2250402
  7. Axelson, R. D., & Flick, A. (2010). Defining student engagement. Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning, 43(1), 38–43. https://doi.org/10.1080/00091383.2011.533096
  8. Bakioğlu, A., & Göktaş, E. (2020). Ortaokul matematik ve fen bilimleri derslerinde işbirlikli öğrenmenin başarıya etkisi: Bir meta-analiz çalışması. Harran Maarif Dergisi, 5(1), 1-30. https://doi.org/10.22596/2020.0501.1.30.
  9. Bedi, A. (2023). Keep Learning: Student Engagement in an Online Environment. Online Learning, 27(2), 119-136.
  10. Ben-Eliyahu, A., Moore, D., Dorph, R., & Schunn, C. D. (2018). Investigating the multidimensionality of engagement: affective, behavioral, and cognitive engagement in science across multiple days, activities, and contexts. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 53, 87–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2018.01.002
  11. Bennett, S., & Lockyer, L. (2004). Becoming an Online Teacher: Adapting to a Changed Environment for Teaching and Learning in Higher Education. Educational Media International, 41(3), 231–248. https://doi.org/10.1080/09523980410001680842
  12. Bosch, E., & Spinath, B. (2023). Students’ Motivation in an Online and a Face-To-Face Semester: A Comparison of Initial Level, Development, and Use of Learning Activities. Zeitschrift Für Psychologie, 231(2), 93–102. https://doi.org/10.1027/2151-2604/a000519
  13. Büyüköztürk, Ş., Akgün, Ö. E., Demirel, F., Karadeniz, Ş., & Çakmak, E. K. (2018). Bilimsel araştırma yöntemleri. Ankara: Pegem Yayınevi.
  14. Cazan, A. M. (2015). Learning motivation engagement and burnout among university students. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 187, 413–417. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.03.077
  15. Chen, K. C., & Jang, S. J. (2010). Motivation in online learning: Testing a model of self determination theory. Computers in Human Behavior, 26(4), 741–752. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2010.01.011
  16. Chiu, T. K. (2022). Applying the self-determination theory (SDT) to explain student engagement in online learning during the COVID-19 pandemic. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 54. https://doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2021.1891998
  17. Chen, K., & Jang, S. (2010). Motivation in online learning: testing a model of self-determination theory. Computers in Human Behavior, 26, 741–752. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb. 2010.01.011
  18. Chowkase, A. A., Datar, K., Deshpande, A., Khasnis, S., Keskar, A., & Godbole, S. (2022). Online learning, classroom quality, and student motivation: Perspectives from students, teachers, parents, and program staff. Gifted Education International, 38(1), 74-94. https://doi.org/10.1177/02614294211060401.
  19. Coates, H. 2007. A Model of Online and General Campus-Based Student Engagement. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education 32 (2): 121–141. https://doi.org/ 10.1080/02602930600801878
  20. Cohen, L., Manion, L. & Morrison, K. (2007). Research methods in education. (Altıncı Baskı). London: Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group.
  21. Cook, D. A., & Artino, A. R., Jr. (2016). Motivation to learn: An overview of contemporary theories. Medical Education, 50(10), 997–1014. https://doi.org/10.1111/medu.13074.
  22. Davidovitch, N., & Yavich, R. (2023). Study Group Size, Motivation and Engagement in the Digital Era. Problems of Education in the 21st Century, 81(3), 361-373. https://doi.org/10.33225/pec/23.81.361.
  23. Dabbagh, N. (2007). The online learner: characteristics and pedagogical implications. Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 7(3), 217–226.
  24. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2012). Self-determination theory. Handbook of theories of social psychology, 1(20), 416-436.
  25. Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2008). Self-determination theory: A macrotheory of human motivation, development, and health. Canadian Psychology, 49(3), 182. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012801
  26. Deci, E. L., Vallerand, R. J., Pelletier, L. G., & Ryan, R. M. (1991). Motivation and education: the self-determination perspective. Educational Psychologist, 26(3–4), 325–346. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.1991.9653137
  27. Doo, M. Y., & Kim, J. (2024). The relationship between learning engagement and learning outcomes in online learning in higher education: A meta-analysis study. Distance Education, 45(1), 60-82. https://doi.org/10.1080/01587919.2024.2303484.
  28. Dwivedi, A., Dwivedi, P., Bobek, S., & Sternad Zabukovšek, S. (2019). Factors affecting students’ engagement with online content in blended learning. Kybernetes, 48(7), 1500-1515. https://doi.org/10.1108/K-10-2018-0559
  29. Ferrer, J., Ringer, A., Saville, K., A Parris, M., & Kashi, K. (2022). Students’ motivation and engagement in higher education: The importance of attitude to online learning. Higher Education, 83(2), 317-338. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-020-00657-5
  30. Fredricks, J. A., Blumenfeld, P. C., & Paris, A. H. (2004). School engagement: Potential of the concept, state of the evidence. Review of Educational Research, 74(1), 59–109. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543074001059.
  31. Fried, L., & Konza, D. (2013). Using self-determination theory to investigate student engagement in the classroom. International Journal of Pedagogy and Curriculum, 19(2), 27–40.
  32. Fryer, L. K., & Bovee, H. N. (2016). Supporting students' motivation for e-learning: Teachers matter on and offline. The Internet and Higher Education, 30(July), 21–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2016.03.003
  33. Gedera, D., Williams, J., Wright, N. (2015). Identifying Factors Influencing Students’ Motivation and Engagement in Online Courses. Koh, C. (Ed.) Motivation, Leadership and Curriculum design. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-287-230-2_2
  34. George, D., & Mallery, P. (2024). IBM SPSS statistics 29 step by step: A simple guide and reference. Routledge.
  35. Gordon, N., Grey, S., & Brayshaw, M. (2015). Motivating and engaging students through technology. J. Hawkins (Ed.), Student Engagement (25–43). New York: Nova Science Publishers Inc.
  36. Greenhow, C., Graham, C. R., & Koehler, M. J. (2022). Foundations of online learning: Challenges and opportunities. Educational Psychologist, 57(3), 131-147. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2022.2090364
  37. Handelsman, M. M., Briggs, W. L., Sullivan, N., & Towler, A. (2005). A measure of college student course engagement. The Journal of Educational Research, 98, 184–192. https://doi.org/10.3200/JOER.98.3.184-192
  38. Hietanen, M., & Svedholm-Häkkinen, A. M. (2023). Transition to distance education in 2020–challenges among university faculty in sweden. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 67(3), 433-446. https://doi.org/10.1080/00313831.2021.2021444.
  39. Hsu, H. C. K., Wang, C. V., & Levesque-Bristol, C. (2019). Reexamining the impact of self-determination theory on learning outcomes in the online learning environment. Education and information technologies, 24(3), 2159-2174. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-019-09863-w
  40. Hu, M., & Li, H. (2017, Haziran). Student engagement in online learning: A review. In 2017 International symposium on educational technology (ISET) (39-43). IEEE.
  41. Huang, Y., & Wang, S. (2023). How to motivate student engagement in emergency online learning? Evidence from the COVID-19 situation. Higher Education, 85(5), 1101-1123. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-022-00880-2
  42. Kang, X., & Zhang, W. (2023). An experimental case study on forum-based online teaching to improve student’s engagement and motivation in higher education. Interactive Learning Environments, 31(2), 1029-1040. https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820.2020.1817758
  43. Kara, M. (2022). Revisiting online learner engagement: Exploring the role of learner characteristics in an emergency period. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 54, 236-252. https://doi.org/10.1080/15391523.2021.1891997.
  44. Khan, A. F. (2015). Assessment of midlife career stress on Indian managers. Master Thesis. Aligarh Muslim University, India.
  45. Knopf, T., Stumpp, S., & Michelis, D. (2021, Temmuz). How online collaborative learning leads to improved online learning experience in higher education. Proceedings of the 8th European Conference on Social Media.
  46. Korkmaz, O., & Kaya, S. (2012). Adapting online self-regulated learning scale into Turkish. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 13(1), 52-67.
  47. Krause, K., & Coates, H. (2008). Students’ engagement in first-year university. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 33(5), 493–505. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 02602930701698892
  48. Kuh, G. D., & Hu, S. (2001). The effects of student-faculty interaction in the 1990s. The Review of Higher Education, 24(3), 309–332. https://doi.org/10.1353/rhe.2001.0005
  49. Kyewski, E., & Krämer, N. C. (2018). To gamify or not to gamify? An experimental field study of the influence of badges on motivation, activity, and performance in an online learning course. Computers & Education, 118, 25-37. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2017. 11.006
  50. Li, Q., Jiang, Q., Liang, J. C., Pan, X., & Zhao, W. (2022). The influence of teaching motivations on student engagement in an online learning environment in China. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 38(6), 1-20. https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.7280
  51. Meşe, E., Sevilen, Ç. (2021). Factors influencing EFL students’ motivation in online learning: A qualitative case study. Journal of Educational Technology and Online Learning, (4)1, 11-22.
  52. Mitchell, I. C., & A. (2011). A typology of task characteristics and their effects on student engagement. International Journal of Educational Research, 50(5–6), 257–270. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2011.05.001
  53. Myers, T., Blackman, A., Andersen, T., Hay, R., Lee, I., & Gray, H. (2014). Cultivating ICT students' interpersonal soft skills in online learning environments using traditional active learning techniques. Journal of Learning Design, 7, 38–53.
  54. Mohtar, M., & Md Yunus, M. (2022). A systematic review of online learning during COVID 19: Students’ motivation, task engagement and acceptance. Arab World English Journal (AWEJ) 2nd Special Issue on Covid, 19.
  55. Nguyen, T. D. T., & Tran, T. Q. (2023). Unpacking Psychological Factors Affecting EFL Students' Online Language Learning Engagement. LEARN Journal: Language Education and Acquisition Research Network, 16(2), 429-450.
  56. Paulsen, J., & McCormick, A. C. 2020. Reassessing Disparities in Online Learner Student Engagement in Higher Education. Educational Researcher 49 (1), 20–29. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X19898
  57. Pentaraki, A., & Burkholder, G. J. (2017). Emerging Evidence Regarding the Roles of Emotional, Behavioural, and Cognitive Aspects of Student Engagement in the Online Classroom. European Journal of Open, Distance and E-Learning, 20(1), 1-21.
  58. Perveen, A. (2016). Synchronous and Asynchronous E-Language Learning: A Case Study of Virtual University of Pakistan. Open Praxis, 8(1), 21-39.
  59. Polat, E., Hopcan, S., & Arslantaş, T. K. (2022). Çevrimiçi öğrenci bağlılık ölçeğinin türkçe’ye uyarlanması: geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışması. Eğitim Teknolojisi Kuram ve Uygulama, 12(1), 41-56. https://doi.org/10.17943/etku.936669
  60. Rahmani, A. M., Groot, W., & Rahmani, H. (2024). Dropout in online higher education: a systematic literature review. International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 21(1), 19. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-024-00450-9
  61. Ray, A. E., Greene, K., Pristavec, T., Hecht, M. L., Miller-Day, M., & Banerjee, S. C. (2020). Exploring indicators of engagement in online learning as applied to adolescent health prevention: A pilot study of REAL media. Educational Technology Research and Development, 68, 3143–3163. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-020-09813-1
  62. Reeve, J. (2012). A Self-determination Theory Perspective on Student Engagement. Christenson, S., Reschly, A., Wylie, C. (Ed.) Handbook of Research on Student Engagement. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-2018-7_7
  63. Reschly, A., & Christenson, S. (2012). Jingle, jangle, and conceptual haziness: evolution and future directions of the engagement construct. In S. Christenson, A. Reschly, & C. Wylie (Ed.), Handbook of research on student engagement (3–20). New York, NY: Springer.
  64. Robinson, C. C., & Hullinger, H. (2008). New benchmarks in higher education: student engagement in online learning. Journal of Education for Business, 84(2), 101–108. https://doi.org/10.3200/JOEB.84.2.101-109
  65. Ryan, R. M., Donald, J. N., & Bradshaw, E. L. (2021). Mindfulness and motivation: A process view using self-determination theory. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 30(4), 300-306. https://doi.org/10.1177/096372142110095
  66. Ryan, R., & Deci, E. (2000). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivations: classic definitions and new directions. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25(1), 54–67. https://doi.org/10.1006/ ceps.1999.1020
  67. Salas‐Pilco, S. Z., Yang, Y., & Zhang, Z. (2022). Student engagement in online learning in Latin American higher education during the COVID‐19 pandemic: A systematic review. British Journal of Educational Technology, 53(3), 593-619. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.13190
  68. Schöbel, S. M., Janson, A., & Leimeister, J. M. (2023). Gamifying online training in management education to support emotional engagement and problem-solving skills. Journal of Management Education, 47(2), 166-203. https://doi.org/10.1177/1052562922112328
  69. Shen, J., Zhang, H., & Zheng, J. (2024). The impact of future self‐continuity on college students' online learning engagement: A moderated mediation model. Psychology in the Schools, 61(4), 1694-1709. https://doi.org/10.1002/pits.23133.
  70. Skinner, E., Furrer, C., Marchand, G., & Kindermann, T. (2008). Engagement and disaffection in the classroom: part of a larger motivational dynamic? Journal of Educational Psychology, 100(4), 765–781. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0012840.
  71. Skylar, A. A. (2009). A Comparison of Asynchronous Online Text-Based Lectures and Synchronous Interactive Web Conferencing Lectures. Issues in Teacher Education, 18(2), 69-84.
  72. Smart, K. L., & Cappel, J. J. (2006). Students’ perceptions of online learning: A comparative study. Journal of Information Technology Education: Research, 5(1), 201-219.
  73. Soffer, T., & Cohen, A. (2019). Students' engagement characteristics predict success and completion of online courses. Journal of computer assisted learning, 35(3), 378-389. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcal.12340
  74. Sulisworo, D. (2012). The Effect of Gender and Online Collaborative Learning Strategy to Student Learning Motivation. International Journal of Learning & Development, 2(6), 2164-1063.
  75. Sun, Y., Ni, L., Zhao, Y., Shen, X. L., & Wang, N. (2019). Understanding students’ engagement in MOOCs: An integration of self‐determination theory and theory of relationship quality. British Journal of Educational Technology, 50(6), 3156-3174. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12724
  76. Trowler, V., & Trowler, P. (2010). Student engagement evidence summary. UK: University of Lancaster.
  77. Uzorka, A. (2024). Perspectives on Online Education in Higher Education. International Journal of Technology in Education and Science, 8(1), 111-120. https://doi.org/10.46328/ijtes.523
  78. Vezne, R., Yildiz Durak, H., & Atman Uslu, N. (2023). Online learning in higher education: Examining the predictors of students’ online engagement. Education and Information Technologies, 28(2), 1865-1889. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-022-11171-9.
  79. Vonderwell, S., & Savery, J. (2004). Online learning: Student role and readiness. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology-TOJET, 3(3), 38-42.
  80. Wang, H., Tlili, A., Lämsä, J., Cai, Z., Zhong, X., & Huang, R. (2023). Temporal perspective on the gender-related differences in online learning behaviour. Behaviour & Information Technology, 42(6), 671-685. https://doi.org/10.1080/0144929X.2022.2039769
  81. Wu, H., Li, S., Zheng, J., & Guo, J. (2020). Medical students’ motivation and academic performance: The mediating roles of self-efficacy and learning engagement. Medical Education Online, 25(1), 1742964. https://doi.org/10.1080/10872981.2020.1742964
  82. Xiong, Y., Li, H., Kornhaber, M. L., Suen, H. K., Pursel, B., & Goins, D. D. (2015). Examining the relations among student motivation, engagement, and retention in a MOOC: A structural equation modeling approach. Global Education Review, 2(3), 23–33.
  83. Yen Chaw, L., & Meng Tang, C. (2019). Driving high inclination to complete massive open online courses (MOOCs): Motivation and engagement factors for learners. The Electronic Journal of e-Learning, 17(2), 118–130. https://doi.org/10.34190/JEL.17.2.05
  84. Yörük, T., & Özçetin, S. (2021). Çevrimiçi öğrenmeye yönelik öz-yeterlik ölçeğinin Türkçe’ye Uyarlanması. Kahramanmaraş Sütçü İmam Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, 18(3), 1640-1657. https://doi.org/10.33437/ksusbd.983825
  85. Yin, H. (2022). A mixed blessing: student engagement in emergency online learning during COVID-19 in China. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 48(3), 362-376. https://doi.org/10.1080/02602938.2022.2072469
  86. Zhou, Z., & Zhang, Y. (2024). Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation in distance education: A self-determination perspective. American Journal of Distance Education, 38(1), 51-64. https://doi.org/10.1080/08923647.2023.2177032
  87. Zhu, Y., Zhang, J. H., Au, W., & Yates, G. (2020). University students’ online learning attitude and continuous intention to undertake online courses: a self-regulated learning perspective. Educational Technology Research and Development, 68(3), 1485–1519. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-020-09753-w
  88. Zeybek, G. (2022). Investigation of pre-service teachers' readiness levels for online learning and engagement levels in the online environment. Journal of Learning for Development, 9(2), 190-208. https://doi.org/10.56059/jl4d.v9i2.538
  89. Mitchell, I. C., & A. (2011). A typology of task characteristics and their effects on student engagement. International Journal of Educational Research, 50(5–6), 257–270. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2011.05.001
  90. Xiong, Y., Li, H., Kornhaber, M. L., Suen, H. K., Pursel, B., & Goins, D. D. (2015). Examining the relations among student motivation, engagement, and retention in a MOOC: A structural equation modeling approach. Global Education Review, 2(3), 23–33.