SavedAdd your journal

Journals / Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Özel Eğitim Dergisi / 2026 / Cilt: 23 Sayı: 3

Language and Communication Features of Childhood-Onset Schizophrenia and Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Literature Review

Çocukluk Çağı Başlangıçlı Şizofreni ve Otizm Spektrum Bozukluğunda Dil ve İletişim Özellikleri: Bir Literatür Taraması

Tuğçe Çabuk(İHSAN DOĞRAMACI BİLKENT ÜNİVERSİTESİ)0000-0003-1881-1349
Şevket Özdemir(Hacettepe Üniversitesi)0000-0002-1230-6491
Gökhan Töret(HACETTEPE ÜNİVERSİTESİ)0000-0001-8801-2310
Pages
655–673
Publication Date
2022-09-01
🏛️Bibliographic metadata and full text access for this article are provided via DergiPark.
DergiPark Record ↗
✨

AI Summary & Key Takeaways

AI Insight
⚡ TL;DR(Too Long; Didn't Read)

The connection between language and pretend play or executive functions could be examined.

📌 3 Key Takeaways

🎯
Objective & Hypothesis:Introduction: Schizophrenia (SZ) and Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) both have life-long and negative impacts on the individuals.
📊
Key Findings & Data:In contrast to ASD, SZ occurs “rarely” in childhood (before the age of 13) which is called Childhood-Onset Schizophrenia (COS).
💡
Conclusion & Impact:The connection between language and pretend play or executive functions could be examined.
🔬Design:Review & Systematic Survey
📍Scope:Comprehensive Sample
⚙️Variables:Çocukluk çağı başlangıçlı şizofreni · otizm spektrum bozukluğu · dil

Abstract

Introduction: Schizophrenia (SZ) and Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) both have life-long and negative impacts on the individuals. In contrast to ASD, SZ occurs “rarely” in childhood (before the age of 13) which is called Childhood-Onset Schizophrenia (COS). Although COS and ASD have distinct pathologies, they exhibit common characteristics since they were described first. One of the most important commonalities is overlapping language and communication features. Till now, it is known that there is no integrative model related to the mutual language characteristics and underlying neurogenetic factors covering both of these disorders. Therefore, this literature review aimed to reveal previous research reporting both diverging and converging language issues with regards to these populations. The information presented in this review also aimed to help special education professionals about noticing the children who might present the features of COS. For this aim, firstly, the historical backgrounds of the disorders were given. Later, the language and communication features of COS and ASD including the overlapping characteristics were presented in light of previous research. Discussion: Studies showed that pragmatic limitations could be observed within both populations. Atypical language characteristics such as echolalia and self-talk could also be mutually observed. A need for future studies exploring the morphological and semantic levels of COS and ASD was emphasized. Furthermore, it was proposed that retrospective and prospective studies could be designed with a large sample. The connection between language and pretend play or executive functions could be examined.

Özet

Giriş: Şizofreni (ŞZ) ve Otizm Spektrum Bozuklukları (OSB) bireyler üzerinde yaşam boyu olumsuz etkilere sahiptir. Çocukluk Çağı Başlangıç Şizofreni (ÇÇBŞ), OSB'nin aksine çocuklukta (13 yaşından önce) "nadiren" ortaya çıkan bir ŞZ türüdür. ÇÇBŞ ve OSB farklı bozukluklar olmasına rağmen, ilk tanımlandıkları andan itibaren iki bozukluğun birtakım ortak özelliklerinin olduğu ifade edilmektedir. En önemli ortak noktalardan biri, örtüşen dil ve iletişim özellikleridir. Şimdiye kadar, bu iki bozukluğun her ikisini de kapsayan dil özellikleri ile bu özelliklerin altında yatan nörogenetik faktörlere ilişkin bütünleştirici bir model ortaya konmamıştır. Bu literatür taraması çalışması iki popülasyona ait farklı ve ortak dil sorunlarını ortaya çıkarmayı ve önceki araştırma bulgularını sunmayı amaçlamıştır. Ayrıca, çalışmada sunulan bilgilerin özel eğitim uzmanlarının ÇÇBŞ belirtileri gösteren çocukları fark etmelerine yardımcı olması beklenmektedir. Bu doğrultuda öncelikle, bozuklukların tarihsel geçmişinden bahsedilmiştir. Sonrasında ÇÇBŞ ve OSB'nin dil ve iletişim özelliklerine odaklanılmıştır ve örtüşen özellikler sunulmuştur. Tartışma: Geçmiş çalışmalardan hareketle, her iki popülasyonda da dilin kullanım boyutuna yönelik sınırlılıkların gözlenebileceği sonucuna varılmıştır. Ekolali ve kendi kendine konuşma gibi atipik dil özelliklerinin de görülebileceği belirtilmiştir. Bu bağlamda, ÇÇBŞ ve OSB'nin biçimbilgisel ve anlambilgisel düzeylerini araştıran çalışmalar desenlenebileceği, büyük bir örneklem grubu üzerinden geçmişe ve ileriye dönük çalışmalara gereksinim duyulduğu ifade edilmiştir. Dil ile hayali oyun veya yürütücü işlevleri arasındaki bağlantının incelenmesinin önemi vurgulanmıştır.

🔖

Cite This Article

Çabuk, T., Özdemir, Ş., Töret, G. (2022). Language and Communication Features of Childhood-Onset Schizophrenia and Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Literature Review. Ankara Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Özel Eğitim Dergisi, Cilt: 23 Sayı: 3, 655–673. https://doi.org/10.21565/ozelegitimdergisi.857651

📄 Full Text PDF Viewer

📄

PDF görüntüleyici hazırlanıyor...

References (84)

  1. Abi-Dargham, A., Laruelle, M., Aghajanian, G. K., Charney, D., & Krystal, J. (1997). The role of serotonin in the pathophysiology and treatment of schizophrenia. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 9(1), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1176/jnp.9.1.1
  2. Alary, M., Delcroix, N., Leroux, E., Razafimandimby, A., Brazo, P., Delamillieure, P., & Dollfus, S. (2013). Functional hemispheric lateralization for language in patients with schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 149(1–3), 42–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2013.06.003
  3. American Psychiatric Association. (1952). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-I) (1st ed.). Washington, DC.
  4. American Psychiatric Association. (1968). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-II) (2nd ed.). Washington, DC.
  5. American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (DSM-IV). Washington DC: American Psychiatric Pub.
  6. Andreasen, N. C. (1979). Thought, language, and communication disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 36, 1325-1330. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1979.01780120055007
  7. Arboleda, C., & Holzman, P. S. (1985). Thought disorder in children at risk for psychosis. Archives of General Psychiatry, 14, 1004-1013. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.1985.01790330084010
  8. Arora, M., Praharaj, S. K., Sarkhel, S., & Sinha, V. K. (2011). Asperger disorder in adults. Southern Medical Journal, 104(4), 264–8. https://doi.org/10.1097/SMJ.0b013e31820c015d
  9. Ball, A., Rittner, B., Chen, Y., & Maguin, E. (2018). Impact of individualized education plans on academic success of youth with early onset schizophrenia. Journal of Evidence-Informed Social Work, 15(5), 534-549. https://doi.org/10.1080/23761407.2018.1487356
  10. Baltaxe, C. A. M., & Simmons, J. Q. (1988). Communication deficits in pre-school children with psychiatric disorders. Seminars in Speech and Language, 9(1), 81-91. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-2008-1064453
  11. Baltaxe, C. A. M., & Simmons, J. Q. (1995). Speech and language disorders in children and adolescents with schizophrenia. Schizoprenia Bulletin, 21(4), 677-692. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/21.4.677
  12. Baribeau, D. A., & Anagnostou, E. (2013). A comparison of neuroimaging findings in childhood onset schizophrenia and autism spectrum disorder: A review of the literature. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 4, 175. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2013.00175
  13. Bleuler, E. (1950). Dementia praecox or the group of schizophrenias. Oxford: International Universities Press.
  14. Barlati, S., Deste, G., Ariu, C., & Vita. (2016). Autism spectrum disorder and schizophrenia: Do they overlap? International Journal of Emergency Mental Health and Human Resilience, 18(1), 760-763. https://doi.org/10.4172/1522-4821.1000318
  15. Cantor, S., Evans, J., Pearce, J., & Pezzot-Pearce, T. (1982). Childhood schizophrenia: Present but not accounted for. American Journal of Psychiatry, 139, 758-763. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.139.6.758
  16. Caplan, R. (1994). Communication deficits in childhood schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 20(4), 671-683. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/20.4.671
  17. Caplan, R., Guthrie, D., & Foy, J. G. (1992). Communication deficits and formal thought disorder in schizophrenic children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 151-159. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199201000-00023
  18. Chen, Y., Rittner, B., Maguin, E., & Dziadaszek, S. (2017). “I need a cigarette” – The effects of cigarette smoking on depression and anxiety of youth with early onset schizophrenia. Journal of Psychologists and Counsellors in Schools, 27(1), 70-84. https://doi.org/10.1017/jgc.2016.16
  19. Cheung, C., Yu, K., Fung, G., Leung, M., Wong, C., Li, Q., Sham, P., Chua, S., & McAlonan, G. (2010). Autistic disorders and schizophrenia: Related or remote? An anatomical likelihood estimation. PLoS One, 5(8), Article e12233. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0012233
  20. Clark, A. F., & Lewis, S. W. (1998). Practitioner review: Treatment of schizophrenia in childhood and adolescence, Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 39, 1071-1081. https://doi.org/10.1111/1469- 7610.00412
  21. Couture, S. M., Penn, D. L., Losh, M., Adolphs, R., Hurley, R., & Piven, J. (2010). Comparison of social cognitive functioning in schizophrenia and high functioning autism: More convergence than divergence. Psychological Medicine, 40(4), 569-579. https://doi.org/10.1017/s003329170999078x
  22. Dawson, G., Meltzoff, A., Osterling, J., & Rinaldi, J. (1998). Neuropsychological correlates of early symptoms of autism. Child Development, 69(5), 1276-1285. https://doi.org/10.2307/1132265
  23. Dulmus, C. N., & Smyth, N. J. (2000). Early-onset schizophrenia: A literature review of empirically based interventions. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 17, 55-69. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1007567609909
  24. Ebert A, & Bar, K. (2010). Emil Kraepelin: A pioneer of scientific understanding of psychiatry and psychopharmacology. Indian Journal of Psychiatry, 52(2), 191. https://doi.org/10.4103/0019-5545.64591
  25. Eigsti, I., de Marchena, A. B., Schuh, J. M., & Kelley, E. (2011). Language acquisition in autism spectrum disorders: A developmental review, Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 5, 681-691. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rasd.2010.09.001
  26. Fatemi, S. H. (2005). Reelin glycoprotein: Structure, biology and roles in health and disease. Molecular Psychiatry, 10, 251–257. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.mp.4001613
  27. Fish, B. (1987). Infant predictors of the longitudinal course of schizophrenic development. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 13(3), 395-409. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/13.3.395
  28. Fitzgerald, M. (2010). Young, violent & dangerous to know. Nova Science Publishers.
  29. Fitzgerald, M. (2012). Schizophrenia and autism/asperger’s syndrome: Overlap and difference. Clinical Neuropsychiatry, 9(4), 171-176.
  30. Foss-Feig, J. H. (2019). Looking under the hood of convergent behavioral deficits in Schizophrenia and Autism. Biological Psychiatry, 86(7), e21-e23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2019.07.030
  31. Gabrielsen, T. P., Farley, M., Speer, L., Villalobos, M., Baker, C. N., & Miller, J. (2015). Identifying autism in a brief observation. Pediatrics, 135(2), 330-338. https://doi.org/10.1542/peds.2014-1428
  32. Galli Carminati, G., Tagan, C., Zecca, G., & Carminati, F. (2018). Between Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and Childhood Onset Schizophrenia (COS): A proposal for a Passerella Syndrome. Neuropsychiatry (London), 8(4), 1239-1248. https://doi.org/10.4172/Neuropsychiatry.1000453
  33. Gernsbacher, M. A., Morson, E. M., & Grace, E. J. (2016). Language and speech in autism. Annual Review of Linguistics, 2, 413-425. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-linguistics-030514-124824
  34. Grinker, R. R. (2008). Unstrange minds: Remapping the world of autism. NY: Basic Books.
  35. Hall, S. D., & Bean, R. A. (2008). Family therapy and childhood-onset schizophrenia: Pursuing clinical and bio/psycho/social competence. Contemporary Family Therapy, 30, 61-74. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10591-008-9061-7
  36. Hart, M., & Lewine, R. R. J. (2017). Rethinking thought disorder. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 43(3), 514-522. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbx003
  37. Harvey, P. D., & Brault, J. (1986). Speech performance in mania and schizophrenia: The association of positive and negative thought disorders and reference failures. Journal of Communication Disorders, 19(3), 161- 173. https://doi.org/10.1016/0021-9924(86)90006-7
  38. Heeger, D. J., & Ress, D. (2002). What does fMRI tell us about neuronal activity? Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 3, 142-151. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn730
  39. Hernandez, R. J. C., Rime, W. J., & Jimerson, S. R. (2013). The school psychologist’s primer on early onset schizophrenia: A review of research regarding epidemiology, etiology, assessment, and treatment. Contemporary School Psychology, 17(1), 51-69. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03340988
  40. Hommer, R. E., & Swedo, S. E. (2015). Schizophrenia and autism - related disorders. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 41(2), 313-314. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbu188
  41. Jänsch, C., & Hare, D. J. (2014). An investigation of the “jumping to conclusions” data gathering bias and paranoid thoughts in Asperger syndrome. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44(1), 111–9. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-013-1855-2
  42. Kamio, Y., Robins, D., Kelley, E., Swainson, B., & Fein, D. (2007). Atypical lexical/semantic processing in high-functioning autism spectrum disorders without early language delay. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 37, 1116-1122. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-006-0254-3
  43. Kanner, L. (1943). Autistic disturbances of affective contact. Nervous Child, 2, 217–250
  44. Kolvin, I. (1971). Studies in the childhood psychoses: I. Diagnostic criteria and classification. British Journal of Psychiatry, 118, 381-384. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.118.545.381
  45. Konstantareas, M. M., & Hewitt, T. (2001). Autistic disorder and schizophrenia: Diagnostic overlaps. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 31(1), 19-28. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1005605528309
  46. Kopelowicz, A., Liberman, R. P., & Zarate, R. (2006). Recent advances in social skills training for schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 32(1), S12-S23. https://doi.org/10.1093/schbul/sbl023
  47. Lam, K. S., Aman, M. G., & Arnold, L. E. (2006). Neurochemical correlates of autistic disorder: a review of the literature. Research in Developmental Disabilities, 27(3), 254–289. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ridd.2005.03.003
  48. Landa, R., & Garrett-Mayer, E. (2006). Development in infants with autism spectrum disorders: A prospective study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47(6), 629-638. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469- 7610.2006.01531.x
  49. Le Bihan, D., Breton, E., Lallemand, D., Grenier, P., Cabanis, E., & Laval Jeantet, M. (1986). MR imaging of intravoxel incoherent motions: application to diffusion and perfusion in neurologic disorders. Radiology, 161, 401–407. https://doi.org/10.1148/radiology.161.2.3763909
  50. Lewis, S., Escalona, P. & Keith, S. (2009). Phenomenology of Schizophrenia. B. Kaplan, V. Sadock, & P. Ruiz (Eds.), Kaplan & Sadock’s comprehensive textbook of psychiatry içinde. Lippincott, Williams, & Wilkins, Philadelphia, PA.
  51. Li, H., Pearrow, M., & Jimerson, S. R. (2010). Identifying, assessing, and treating early onset schizophrenia at school. Springer.
  52. Liberman, R. P., & Kopelowicz, A. (2005). Recovery from schizophrenia: A concept in search of research. Psychiatry Services, 56(6), 735-742. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ps.56.6.735
  53. McAlonan, G. M., Cheung, V., Cheung, C., Suckling, J., Lam, G. Y., Tai, K. S., Yip, L., Murphy, D. G. M., & Chua, S. E. (2005). Mapping the brain in autism. A voxel-based MRI study of volumetric differences and intercorrelations in autism. Brain, 128(2), 268–276. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awh332
  54. Meyer, U., Feldon, J., & Dammann, O. (2011). Schizophrenia and autism: Both shared and disorder-specific pathogenesis via perinatal inflammation? Pediatric Resarch, 69(5), 26R-33R. https://doi.org/10.1203/PDR.0b013e318212c196
  55. Morgese, G., & Lombardo, G. P. (2019). ‘Dementia praecocissima’: the Sante De Sanctis model of mental disorder in child psychiatry in the 20th century. History Psychiatry, 30(3), 300–13. https://doi.org/10.1177/0957154X19832776
  56. Myles-Worsley, M., Weaver, S., & Blailes, F. (2007). Comorbid depressive symptoms in the developmental course of adolescent-onset psychosis. Early Intervention in Psychiatry, 1, 183-190. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-7893.2007.00022.x
  57. Nicolson, R., Lenane, M., Hamburger, S. D., Fernandez, T., Bedwell, J. & Rapoport, J. L. (2000). Lessons from childhood-onset schizophrenia. Brain Research Reviews, 31, 147-156. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165- 0173(99)00032-6
  58. Osterling, J., & Dawson, G. (1994). Early recognition of children with autism: A study of first birthday home videotapes. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 24(3), 247-257. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf02172225
  59. Ozonoff, S, Losif, A., Baguio, F., Cook, I. C., Moore Hill, M., Hutman, T., Rogers, S. J., Rozga, A., Sangha, S., Sigman, M., Steinfeld, M. B., & Young, G. S. (2010). A prospective study of the emergence of early behavioral signs of autism, Journal of American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 49(3), 256- 266. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-201003000-00009
  60. Patten, E., Belardi, M. S., Baranek, G. T., Watson, L. R., Labban, J. D., & Oller, D. K. (2014). Vocal patterns in infants with Autism Spectrum Disorder: Canonical babbling status and vocalization frequency. Journal of Autism Development and Disorders, 44(10), 2413-2428. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-014-2047-4
  61. Paul, R., Chawarska, K., Fowler, C., Cicchetti, D., & Volkmar, F. (2007). Listen, my children and you shall hear: Auditory preferences in toddlers with ASD. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 50, 1350-1364. https://doi.org/10.1044/1092-4388(2007/094)
  62. Paul, R., & Norbury, C. F. (2011). Language disorders from infancy through adolescence: Listening, speaking, reading, writing, and communicating. (4th ed.) Elsevier.
  63. Persico, A. M., & Napolioni, V. (2013). Autism genetics. Behavioral Brain Research, 251, 95–112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbr.2013.06.012
  64. Pinkham, A. E., Hopfinger, J. B., Pelphrey, K. A., Piven, J., & Penn, D. L. (2008). Neural bases for impaired social cognition in schizophrenia and autism spectrum disorders. Schizophrenia Research, 99(1-3), 164–75. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.schres.2007.10.024
  65. Prelock, P. A., Paul, R., & Allen, E. M. (2011). Evidence-based treatments in communication for children with autism spectrum disorders. B. Reichow, P. Doehring, D. V. Cicchetti, & F. R. Volkmar (Eds.), Evidence-based practices and treatments for children with autism içinde (ss. 93-171). Springer.
  66. Rapin, I., & Tuchman, R. F. (2008). Autism: Definition, neurobiology, screening, diagnosis. Pediatric Clinics of North America, 55(5), 1129–1146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pcl.2008.07.005
  67. Rapoport, J., Chavez, A., Greenstein, D., Addington, A., & Gogtay, N. (2009). Autism spectrum disorders and childhood-onset schizophrenia: Clinical and biological contributions to a relation revisited. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 48(1), 10-18. https://doi.org/10.1097/CHI.0b013e31818b1c63
  68. Remschmidt, H., Martin, M., Fleischhaker, C., Theisen, F. M., Hennighausen, K., Gutenbrunner, C., Schulz, E. (2006). Forty-two years later: The outcome of childhood-onset schizophrenia. Journal of Neural Transmission, 114, 505–512. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-006-0553-z
  69. Roth, F. P., & Worthington, C. K. (2015). Treatment resource manual for speech-language pathology (5th ed.). Cengage Learning.
  70. Rus-Calafell, M., Gutiérrez-Maldonado, J., Ribas-Sabaté, J., & Lemos-Giráldez, S. (2014). Social skills training for people with schizophrenia: What do we train? Behavioral Psychology, 22(3), 461–477.
  71. Shenton, M. E., Dickey, C. C., Frumin, M., & McCarley, R. W. (2001). A review of MRI findings in schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 49(1-2), 1–52. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0920-9964(01)00163-3
  72. Stafford, M. R., Mayo-Wilson, E., Loucas, C. E., James, A., Hollis, C., Birchwood, M., Kendall, T. (2015). Efficacy and safety of pharmacological and psychological interventions for the treatment of psychosis and schizophrenia in children, adolescents and young adults: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One, 10(2), Article e0117166. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0117166
  73. Stefanatos, G. A., & Baron, I. S. (2011). The ontogenesis of language impairment in autism: A neuropsychological perspective. Neuropsychology Review, 21(3), 252–70. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11065-011-9178-6
  74. Stone, W. L., Ousley, O. Y., Yoder, P. J., Hogan, K. L., & Hepburn, S. L. (1997). Nonverbal communication in two- and three-year-old children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 27(6), 677-696. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1025854816091
  75. Tager-Flusberg, H., & Anderson, M. (1991). The development of contingent discourse ability in autistic children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 32, 1123-1134. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469- 76101991.tb00353.x
  76. Thaker, G. (2009). Schizophrenia: Phenotypic Manifestations. B. J. Sadock, V. A. Sadock, & P. Ruiz (Eds.), Kaplan & Sadock’s comprehensive textbook of psychiatry içinde. Lippincott, Williams, & Wilkins.
  77. Toal, F., Bloemen, O. J., Deeley, Q., Tunstall, N., Daly, E. M., Page, L., Brammer, M. J., Murphy, K. C., & Murphy, D. G. M. (2009). Psychosis and autism: Magnetic resonance imaging study of brain anatomy. British Journal of Psychiatry, 194(5), 418-425. https://doi.org/10.1192/bjp.bp.107.049007
  78. Töret, G., & Acarlar, F. (2011). Gestures in prelinguistic Turkish children with Autism, Down Syndrome, and typically developing children. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 11(3), 1471-1478.
  79. Trevisan, D. A., Foss-Feig, J. H., Naples, A. J., Srihari, V., Anticevic, A., & McPortland, J. C. (2020). Autism spectrum disorder and schizophrenia are better differentiated by positive symptoms than negative symptoms. Frontiers in Psychiatry, 11(548). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.00548
  80. Volkmar, F. R., Carter, A., Grossman, J., & Klin, A. (1997). Social development in autism. D. J. Cohen & F. R. Volkmar (Eds.), Handbook of autism and pervasive developmental disorders içinde (ss. 173-194). Wiley.
  81. Vyas, N. S., & Gogtay, N. (2012). Treatment of early onset schizophrenia: Recent trends, challenges and future considerations. Frontiers in psychiatry, 3, 29. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2012.00029
  82. Wallace, C. J., & Lieberman, R. P. (1985). Social skills training for patients with schizophrenia: A controlled clinical trial. Psychiatry Research, 15, 239-247. https://doi.org/10.1016/0165-1781(85)90081-2
  83. Waterhouse, L., & Fein, D. (1984). Developmental trends in cognitive skills for children diagnosed as autistic and schizophrenic. Child Development, 55, 236-248. https://doi.org/10.2307/1129848
  84. Wetherby, A. M., Woods, J., Allen, L., Cleary, J., Dickinson, H., & Lord, C. (2004). Early indicators of Autism Spectrum Disorders in the second year of life. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 34(5), 473-493. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-004-2544-y