SavedAdd your journal

Journals / Antropoloji / 2025 / Sayı: 51

The Nutritional Strategies in the Upper Paleolithic Period and Üçağızlı I Cave

Üst Paleolitik Dönemde Beslenme Stratejileri ve Üçağızlı I Mağarası

Ayşen Açıkkol(Sivas Cumhuriyet Üniversitesi)0000-0003-1086-9749
Pages
89–107
Publication Date
2025-12-31
🏛️Bibliographic metadata and full text access for this article are provided via DergiPark.
DergiPark Record ↗
✨

AI Summary & Key Takeaways

AI Insight
⚡ TL;DR(Too Long; Didn't Read)

In this study, the data from Üçağızlı Cave are taken as a basis, the data from other Upper Palaeolithic sites are investigated and the general dietary pattern in the Upper Palaeolithic period is tried to be explained.

📌 3 Key Takeaways

🎯
Objective & Hypothesis:The Upper Paleolithic is characterized by the spread of early modern humans from Africa to other continents.
📊
Key Findings & Data:These early hunter-gatherers, with high cognitive capacity and an anatomy almost identical to our own, developed different feeding strategies over time in different geographical and ecological niches.
💡
Conclusion & Impact:In this study, the data from Üçağızlı Cave are taken as a basis, the data from other Upper Palaeolithic sites are investigated and the general dietary pattern in the Upper Palaeolithic period is tried to be explained.
🔬Design:Araştırma Makalesi
📍Scope:Comprehensive Sample
⚙️Variables:Üst Paleolitik · Beslenme · Avcılık

Abstract

The Upper Paleolithic is characterized by the spread of early modern humans from Africa to other continents. These early hunter-gatherers, with high cognitive capacity and an anatomy almost identical to our own, developed different feeding strategies over time in different geographical and ecological niches. A high adaptive capacity to changing conditions is the key to their survival success. In this chapter, based on zooarchaeological and paleoecological data, the dietary patterns of early modern humans living in the Upper Paleolithic are discussed. In the early Upper Palaeolithic, the diet was based on hunting and gathering of large terrestrial animals, which varied from region to region, but by the end of the period, the diet began to diversify, and with the development of more complex tools, small and fast prey animals and marine resources began to play a greater role in the diet. Excavated since 1997, Üçağızlı Cave is one of the Paleolithic sites that best reflects the climate changes and the difference in hunting and feeding strategies in the Late Pleistocene. In this study, the data from Üçağızlı Cave are taken as a basis, the data from other Upper Palaeolithic sites are investigated and the general dietary pattern in the Upper Palaeolithic period is tried to be explained.

Özet

Üst Paleolitik Dönem, erken modern insanların Afrika’dan diğer kıtalara yayılımı ile karakterizedir. Bilişsel kapasitesi yüksek, anatomileri bizimle neredeyse aynı olan bu erken avcı-toplayıcılar zamanla farklı coğrafya ve ekolojik nişlerde farklı beslenme stratejileri geliştirmişlerdir. Değişen koşullara yüksek uyum kapasitesi, bu insanların hayatta kalma başarısının anahtarıdır. Bu araştırmada zooarkeolojik ve paleoekolojik verilerden yola çıkarak Üst Paleolitik Dönemde yaşayan erken modern insanların beslenme örüntüleri ele alınmıştır. Bu amaçla, Geç Pleistosen’deki iklim değişimlerini ve avlanma-beslenme stratejilerindeki farklılığı en iyi yansıtan Paleolitik sitelerden biri olan Üçağızlı I Mağarası 2007- 2020 zooarkeoloji verileri temel alınarak, Batı Avrasya’daki diğer Üst Paleolitik sitelerine ait veriler araştırılmış ve Üst Paleolitik Dönem’deki genel beslenme örüntüsü açıklanmaya çalışılmıştır. Üst Paleolitik’in erken dönemlerinde, bölgeden bölgeye farklılık gösteren büyük karasal hayvanlarının avlanmasına ve toplayıcılığa dayanan beslenme, dönemin sonlarında çeşitlenmeye başlamış, daha kompleks aletlerin geliştirilmesiyle avlanan küçük ve hızlı av hayvanları ve denizel kaynaklar beslenmede daha fazla yer tutmaya başlamıştır. Bu süreç, zooarkeolojide artan diyet genişliği olarak adlandırılır. Hem Üçağızlı I Mağarası hem de Eski Dünya’daki pek çok site, modern insanların diyet listesindeki besin maddelerinin artışına ışık tutar.

🔖

Cite This Article

Açıkkol, A. (2025). The Nutritional Strategies in the Upper Paleolithic Period and Üçağızlı I Cave. Antropoloji, Sayı: 51, 89–107. https://doi.org/10.33613/antropolojidergisi.1659781

📄 Full Text PDF Viewer

📄

PDF görüntüleyici hazırlanıyor...

References (81)

  1. Adler, D.S. ve Bar-Oz, G. (2009). Seasonal patterns of prey acquisition and inter-group competition during the Middle and Upper Palaeolithic of the Southern Caucasus. J.-J. Hublin ve M.P. Richards (Eds.) içinde, The evolution of hominin diets: integrating approaches to the study of palaeolithic subsistence (s. 127–140). Springer. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-9699-0_21
  2. Atıcı, L., (2014). Commingled bone assemblages: Insights from zooarchaeology and taphonomy of a bone bed at Karain B Cave, SW Turkey. A. J. Osterholtz, K. M. Baustian ve D. L. Martin (Eds.) içinde. Commingled and disarticulated human remains (s. 213-253). Springer.
  3. Bar-Matthews, M. ve Ayalon, A. (2003). Climatic cond it ions in the Ea stern Mediterranean during the Last Glacial (60-10 ky) and their relations to the Upper Palaeolithic in the Levant as inferred from oxygen and carbon isotope systematics of cave deposits. A.N. Goring-Morris ve A. Belfer-Cohen (Eds.) içinde, More than meets the eye: Studies on Upper Palaeolithic diversity in the Near East (s. 13-18). Oxbow. https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvh1dwcq
  4. Bar-Yosef, O. (1980). Prehistory of the Levant. Annual Review of Anthropology, 9, 101-133. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.an.09.100180.000533
  5. Becerra-Valdivia, L., Douka, K., Comeskey, D., Bazgir, B., Conard, N.J., Marean, C.W., Olle, A., Otte, M., Tumung, L., Zeidi, M. ve Higham, T.F.G., (2017). Chronometric investigations of the Middle to Upper Paleolithic transition in the Zagros Mountains using AMS radiocarbon dating and Bayesian age modelling. Journal of Human Evolution, 109, 57-69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2017.05.011
  6. Belfer- Cohen, A. ve Bar-Yosef, O. (1981). The Aurignacian at Hayonim Cave. Paleorient, 7(2), 19-42. https://doi.org/10.3406/paleo.1981.4296
  7. Bertacchi, A., Gasparyan, B., Gruwier, B, Rivals, F. ve Kandel, A.W. (2021). Upper Paleolithic animal exploitation in the Armenian highlands: the zooarchaeology of Aghitu-3 Cave. Quaternary International, 587-588, 400-414. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2020.04.029
  8. Bosch, M. (2015). Wat schaft de pot? De Midden en Jong-Palaeolithische fauna van Ksâr ‘Akil, Libanon. Cranium, 32(1), 2 8-33.
  9. Bouzouggar, A., Barton, N., Vanhaeren, M., d’Errico, F., Collcutt, S., Higham, T., Hodge, E., Parfitt, S., Rhodes, E., Schwenninger, J.-L., Stringer, C., Turner, E., Wa rd, S., Moutmir, A. ve Stambouli, A. (2007). 82,000-year-old shell beads from North Africa and implications for the origins of modern human behavior. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science (PN AS), 104 (2 4), 996 4 -9969. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0703877104
  10. Coinman, N.R. ( 1996). Worked bone in the Levantine Upper Paleolithic: rare examples from the Wadi Al-Hasa, West-Central Jordan. Paleorient, 22(2), 113-121. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41492667
  11. Conard, N.J. (2009). A female figurine from the basal Aurignacian of Hohle Fels Cave in Southwestern Germany. Nature, 459, 248-252. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature07995
  12. Conard, N., Malina, M. ve Münzel, S. (2009). New flutes document the earliest musical tradition in Southwestern Germany. Nature, 460, 737–740. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature08169
  13. Conati Barbaro, C., Moscone, D., Iamoni, M., Morandi Bonacossi, D. ve Qasim, H. A. (2019). The prehistory and protohistory of the northwestern region of Iraqi Kurdistan: Preliminary results from the first survey campaigns. Paleorient, 45(2): 207-229. https://doi.org/10.4000/paleorient.778
  14. Demeter, F., Shackelford, L.L., Bacon, A.-M., Duringer, P., Westaway, K., Sayavongkhamdy, T., Braga, J., Sichanthongtip, P., Khamdalavong, P., Ponche, J.-L., Wang, H., Lundstrom, C., Patole-Edoumba, E. ve Karpoff, A.-M. (2012). Anatomically modern humans in Southeast Asia (Laos) by 46 ka. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science (PNAS), 109(36), 14375-14380. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.120810410
  15. El Zaatari, S. ve Hublin J.-J. (2014). Diet of Upper Paleolithic modern humans: evidence from microwear texture analysis. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 153, 570–581. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.22457
  16. Eaton, S.B., Eaton III, S.B. ve Konner, M.J. (1997). Review: paleolithic nutrition revisted: a twelve-year retrospective on its nature and implications. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 51, 207-216.
  17. Evins, M.A. (1982). T he Fauna from Shanidar Cave: Mousterian wild goat exploitation in Northeastern Iraq. Paleorient, 8(1): 37-58. https://doi.org/10.3406/paleo.1982.4308
  18. Fewlass, H., Talamo, S., Wacker, L., Kromer, B., Tuna, T., Fagault, Y., Bard, E., McPherron, S.P., A ldeias, V., Maria, R., Martisius, N.L., Paskulin, L., Rezek, Z., Sinet-Mathiot, V., Sirakova, S., Smith, G.M., Spasov, R., Welker, F., Sirakov, N., Tsanova, T. ve Hublin, J.J. (2020). A 14C Chronology for the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic transition a t Bacho Kiro Cave, Bulgaria. Nature, 4, 794–801. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-020-1136-3 Garate, D., Labarge, A., Rivero, O., Normand. C. ve Darricau, J. (2013). The Cave of Isturitz (West Pyrenees, France): one century of research in paleolithic parietal art. Arts, 2(4), 253-272. https://doi.org/10.3390/arts2040253
  19. Gvirtzman, G. ve Wieder. M. (2001). Climate of last 53,000 years in the Eastern Mediterranean, based on soil-sequence stratigraphy in the coastal plain of Israel. Quaternary Sciences Reviews, 20, 1827-1849. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-3791(01)00008-7c
  20. Harding, A. (2013). Salt in Prehistoric Europe, Sidestone Press.
  21. Henshilwood, C.S., d ’Errico, F., van Niekerk, K.L., Coquinot, Y., Jacobs, Z., Lauritzen, S.-E., Menu, M. ve García-Moreno, R. (2011). A 100,000-year-old ochre-processing workshop at Blombos Cave, South Africa. Science, 334, 219-222. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1211535
  22. Higham, T., Compton, T., Stringer, C., Jacobi, R., Shapiro, B., Trinkaus, E., Chandler, B., Gröning, F., Collins, C., Hillson, S., O’Higgins, P., FitzGerald, C. ve Fagan, M. (2011). The earliest evidence for anatomically modern humans in Northwestern Europe. Nature, 479, 521-524. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature10484
  23. Hoffecker, J.F. (2005). Innovation and technological knowledge in the Upper Paleolithic of Northern Eurasia. Evolutionary Anthropology, 14, 186-198. https://doi.org/10.1002/evan.20066
  24. Hooijer, D.A. (1961). The fossil vertebrates of Ksâr ‘Akil, a palaeolithic rock shelter in the Lebanon. Zoologische Verhandelingen, 49, 3-67.
  25. Hovers, E., Ilani, S., Bar-Yosef, O. ve Vandermeersch, B. (2003). An early case of color symbolism-ochre use by modern humans in Qafzeh Cave. Current Anthropology, 44/4, 491-522. https://doi.org/10.1086/375869
  26. Hublin, J.J, Ben-Ncer, A., Bailey, S.E., Freidline, S.E., Neubauer, S., Skinner, M.M., Bergmann, I., Le Cabec, A., Benazzi, S., Harvati, K. ve Gun, P. (2017). New fossils from Jebel Irhoud, Morocco and the Pan-African origin of Homo sapiens. Nature, 546, 289-292. https://doi. org/10.1038/nature22336
  27. Hublin, J.J., Sirakov, N., Aldeias, V., Bailey, S., Bard, E., Delvigne, V., Endarova, E., Fagault, Y., Fewlass, H., Hajdinjak, M., Kromer, B., Krumov, I., Marreiros, J., Martisius, N.L., Paskulin, L., Sinet-Mathiot, V., Meyer, M., Paabo, S., Popov, V., Rezek, Z., Sirakova, S., Skinner, M.M., Smith, G.M., Spasov, R., Talamo, S., Tuna, T., Wacker, L., Welker, F, Wilcke, A., Zahariev, N., McPherron, S.P. ve Tsanaova, T. (2020). Initial Upper Palaeolithic Homo sapiens from Bacho Kiro Cave, Bulgaria. Nature, 581, 299-302. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2259-z
  28. Gilead, I. (1991). The Upper Paleolithic period in the Levant. Journal of World Prehistory, 5 (2), 105-154. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00974677
  29. Kisle v, M.E., Nadel, D. ve Carmi, I. (1992). Epipalaeolithic (19,000 BP) cereal and fruit diet at Ohalo II, Sea of Galilee, Israel. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 73, 161-166. https://doi.org/10.1016/0034-6667(92)90054-K
  30. Klein, R.G., (1999). The human career. The University of Chicago. Konner, M., ve Eaton, S.B. (2010). Paleolithic nutrition - twenty-five years later. Nutrition in Clinical Practice, 25(6), 594-602. https://doi.org/10.1177/0884533610385702
  31. Kuhn, S.L. (2004). From Initial Upper Paleolithic to Ahmarian at Üçağızlı Cave, Turkey. L’Anthropologie. 42(3), 275-288. https://www.jstor.org/stable/26292700
  32. Kuhn, S.L., Stiner, M.C., Güleç, E., Özer, İ., Yılmaz, H., Baykara, İ., Açıkkol, A., Goldberg, P., Molina, K.M., Ünay, E. ve Suata Alpaslan, F. (2009). The Early Upper Paleolithic occupations at Üçağızlı Cave (Hatay, Turkey). Journal of Human Evolution, 56(2), 87-113. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2008.07.014
  33. Martínez Varea, C.M. ve Badal García, E. (2017). Plant use at the end of the Upper Palaeolithic: archaeobotanical remains from Cova de les Cendres (Teulada-Moraira, Alicante, Spain). Vegetation History and Archaeobotany, 27, 3–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00334-017-0616-0
  34. Martinoli, D. (2004). Food plant use, temporal changes and site seasonally at Epipalaeolithic Öküzini and Karain B caves, southwest Anatolia, Turkey. Paleorient, 30 (2): 61-80. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41496700
  35. Martisius, N.L., Spasov, R., Smith, G.M., Endarova, E., Sinet-Mathiot, V., Welker, F., Aldeias, V., Horta, P., Marreiros, J., Rezek, Z., McPherron, S.P., Sirakov, N., Sirakova, S., Tsanova, T. ve Hublin, J.J. (2022) Initial Upper Paleolithic bone technology and personal ornaments at Bacho Kiro Cave (Bulgaria). Journal of Human Evolution, 167, 1-34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. jhevol.2020.102870
  36. Mashkour, M., Monchot, H., Trinkaus, E., Reyss, J.-L., Biglari, F., Bailon, S., Heydari, S. ve Abdi, K. (2008). Carnivores and their prey in the Wezmeh Cave (Kermanshah, Iran): A Late Pleistocene refuge in the Zagros. International Journal of Osteoarchaeology, 19, 678– 694. https://doi.org/10.1002/oa.997
  37. Mashkour, M., Radu, V., Mohaseb, A., Hashemi, N., Otte, M. ve Shidrang, S. (2009). The Upper Paleolithic faunal remains from Yafteh Cave (Central Zagros) 2005 campaign. A preliminary study. M. Otte, F. Biglari ve J. Jaubert (Eds.) içinde, Iran Palaeolithic / Le Paléolithique d’Irani (s. 73-85), A rchaeopress.
  38. Mellars, P. (1991). Cognitive changes and the emergence of modern huma ns in Europe. Cambridge Archaeological Journal, 1(1), 63-76. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0959774300000251
  39. Minzoni-Déroche, A. (1992). Üçağızlı Mağara, un site Aurignacien dans le Hatay (Anatolie): premiers résultant, Paléorient, 18(1), 89-96.
  40. Nigst, P.R., Haesaerts, P., Damblon, F., Frank-Fellner, C., M allol, C., Viola, B., G ötzinger, M., Niven, L., Trnka, G. ve Hublin, J.J. (2014). Early modern human settlement of Europe north of t he Alps occurred 4 3,500 years ago in a cold steppe-type environment. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science (PNAS), 111(40), 14394-14399. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1412201111
  41. Nowak, R.M. ve Paradiso, J.L. (1983). Walker’s mammals of the world, volume I (4th edition), the John Hopkins University Press.
  42. Olszewski, D.I., ve Dibble, H.L. (1994). The Zagros Aurignacian. Current Anthropology, 35(1), 68–75. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2744144
  43. Otte, M., Yalçınkaya, I., ve Kartal, M. (2005). Le Paléolithique Supérieur d’Anatolie. Mitekufat Haeven: Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society, 179–188. http://www.jstor.org/stable/23383559
  44. Power, R.C., Salazar-García, D.C. ve Henry, A.G. (2016). Dental calculus evidence of Gravettian diet and behaviour at Dolní Věstonice and Pavlov. J. A. Svobod a (Ed.) içinde, Dolní Věstonice II - chronostratigraphy, paleoethnology, paleoanthropology (s. 345-352), Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Institute of Archeology.
  45. Power, R.C. ve Williams, F.L. (2018). Evidence of increasing intensity of food processing during the Upper Paleolithic of Western Eurasia. Journal of Paleolithic Archaeology, 1, 281-301. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41982-018-0014-x
  46. Pryor, A.J.E., Steele, M., Jones, M.K., Svoboda, J. ve Beresford-Jones, D.G. (2013). Plant foods in the Upper Palaeolithic at Dolni Vestonice? Parenchyma redux. Antiquity, 87, 971-984. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003598X00049802
  47. Ramsey, M.N., Rosen, A.M. ve Nadel, D. (2017). Centered on the Wetlands: Integrating new phytolith evidence of plant-use from the 23,000 -year- old site of Ohalo II, Israel. American Antiquity, 82(4), 702-722. https://doi.org/10.1017/aaq.2017.37
  48. Richards, M., Bandelt, H.J., Kivisild, T. ve Oppenheimer, S. (20 06). A model for the dispersal of modern humans out of Africa. H. Bandelt, V. Macaulay ve M.Richards (Eds.) içinde, Human mitochondrial DNA and the evolution of Homo sapiens (s. 225-265), Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-31789-9_10
  49. Schuldenrein, J., (2015). Refining land scape contexts for open-air, Lower and Middle Paleolithic sites: a case study from Muthanna Province, Southern Iraq. Archaeological and Anthropological Sciences, 7, 257–273. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12520-014-0215-2
  50. Shea, J.J. (2013). Stone tools in the Paleolithic and Neolithic Near East. A Guide. Cambridge University Press.
  51. Stanford, C., A llen, J.S. ve Anton, S.C. (2013). Biological Anthropology: The natural history of humankind. Pearson Education.
  52. Stiner, M.C. (2001). Thirty years on the “broad spectrum revolution” and paleolithic demography. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science (PNAS), 98, 6993–6996. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.12117619
  53. Stiner, M.C., Açıkkol, A., Güleç, E., Pehlevan, C. ve Kuhn, S.L. (2004). Paleolithic diet breadth at Üçağızlı Cave (Hatay, Turkey) in Pan-Mediterranean context. Antropoloji, 18, 41-66. https://doi.org/10.1501/antro_0000000285
  54. Stiner, M.C. ve Kuhn, S.L. (2009). Paleolithic diet and the division of labor in Mediterranean Eurasia. J.Hublin ve M.P.Richards (Eds.) içinde, The evolution of hominin diets (s. 157-169), Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-9699-0_11
  55. Stiner, M.C., Pehlevan, C., Sağır, M. ve Özer, İ. (2002). Zooarchaeological studies at Üçağızlı Cave: Preliminary results on paleolithic subsistence and shell ornaments. Arkeometri Sonuçları Toplantısı, 17, 2 9 -35. http://www.kulturvarliklari.gov.tr/sempozyum_pdf/arkeometri/17_arkeometri.pdf
  56. Suata-Alpaslan, F. (2011). The rodent fossils of Üçağızlı Cave (Hatay, Turkey). Turkish Journal of Zoology, 35(3), 1-14. https://doi.org/10.3906/zoo-0905-16
  57. Tejero, J.-M. ve Grima ld i, S. (2015). A ssessing bone and antler exploitation at Riparo Mochi (Balzi Rossi, Italy): Implications for the characterization of the Aurignacian in southwestern Europe. Journal of Archaeological Science, 61, 59-77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2015.05.003
  58. Texier, P.-J. Porraz, G., Parkington, J., Rigaud, J.P., Poggenpoel, C., Miller, C., Tr ibolo, C., Cartwright, C., Coudenneau, A., Klein, R., Steele, T. ve Verna, C. (2010). A Howiesons Poort tradition of engraving ostrich eggshell containers dated to 60,000 years ago at Diepkloof Rock Shelter, South Africa. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science (PNAS), 107(14), 6180-6185. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0913047107
  59. Thinking Small: Global Perspectives on Microlithization (Eds. Robert G. Elston, Steven L. Kuhn). 2002. Archeological Papers of the American Anthropological Association, Number 12.
  60. Trinkaus, E. (2005). Early modern humans. Annual Review of Anthropology, 34, 207-230. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.34.030905.154913
  61. Turnbull, P.F. (1975). The mammalian fauna of Warwasi rock shelter, West- central Iran. Fieldiana Geology, 33(8): 141-155.
  62. White, R. (2003). Prehistoric art: The symbolic journey of humankind. Abrams Books.
  63. Weiss, E., Kislev, M.E., Simchoni, O. ve Nadel, D. (2004). Small-grained wild grasses as staple food at t he 23 000-year-old site Of Ohalo II, Israel. Economic Botany, 58 (Supplement): S I 25 - S13 4. https://doi.org /10.16 63/0 013 - 0001(2004)58[S125:SWGASF]2.0.CO;2
  64. Zohar, I., Dayan, T., Goren, M., Nadel, D. ve Hershkovitz, I. (2018). Opportunism or aquatic specialization? evidence of freshwater fish exploitation at Ohalo II- A waterlogged Upper Paleolithic site. PLoS ONE, 13(6), e0198747. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0198747
  65. Becerra-Valdivia, L., Douka, K., Comeskey, D., Bazgir, B., Conard, N.J., Marean, C.W., Olle, A., Otte, M., Tumung, L., Zeidi, M. ve Higham, T.F.G., (2017). Chronometric investigations of the Middle to Upper Paleolithic transition in the Zagros Mountains using AMS radiocarbon dating and Bayesian age modelling. Journal of Human Evolution, 109, 57-69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2017.05.011
  66. Belfer- Cohen, A. ve Bar-Yosef, O. (1981). The Aurignacian at Hayonim Cave. Paleorient, 7(2), 19-42. https://doi.org/10.3406/paleo.1981.4296
  67. Bouzouggar, A., Barton, N., Vanhaeren, M., d’Errico, F., Collcutt, S., Higham, T., Hodge, E., Parfitt, S., Rhodes, E., Schwenninger, J.-L., Stringer, C., Turner, E., Wa rd, S., Moutmir, A. ve Stambouli, A. (2007). 82,000-year-old shell beads from North Africa and implications for the origins of modern human behavior. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science (PN AS), 104 (2 4), 996 4 -9969. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0703877104
  68. Demeter, F., Shackelford, L.L., Bacon, A.-M., Duringer, P., Westaway, K., Sayavongkhamdy, T., Braga, J., Sichanthongtip, P., Khamdalavong, P., Ponche, J.-L., Wang, H., Lundstrom, C., Patole-Edoumba, E. ve Karpoff, A.-M. (2012). Anatomically modern humans in Southeast Asia (Laos) by 46 ka. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science (PNAS), 109(36), 14375-14380. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.120810410
  69. Fewlass, H., Talamo, S., Wacker, L., Kromer, B., Tuna, T., Fagault, Y., Bard, E., McPherron, S.P., A ldeias, V., Maria, R., Martisius, N.L., Paskulin, L., Rezek, Z., Sinet-Mathiot, V., Sirakova, S., Smith, G.M., Spasov, R., Welker, F., Sirakov, N., Tsanova, T. ve Hublin, J.J. (2020). A 14C Chronology for the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic transition a t Bacho Kiro Cave, Bulgaria. Nature, 4, 794–801. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41559-020-1136-3 Garate, D., Labarge, A., Rivero, O., Normand. C. ve Darricau, J. (2013). The Cave of Isturitz (West Pyrenees, France): one century of research in paleolithic parietal art. Arts, 2(4), 253-272. https://doi.org/10.3390/arts2040253
  70. Higham, T., Compton, T., Stringer, C., Jacobi, R., Shapiro, B., Trinkaus, E., Chandler, B., Gröning, F., Collins, C., Hillson, S., O’Higgins, P., FitzGerald, C. ve Fagan, M. (2011). The earliest evidence for anatomically modern humans in Northwestern Europe. Nature, 479, 521-524. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature10484
  71. Hublin, J.J, Ben-Ncer, A., Bailey, S.E., Freidline, S.E., Neubauer, S., Skinner, M.M., Bergmann, I., Le Cabec, A., Benazzi, S., Harvati, K. ve Gun, P. (2017). New fossils from Jebel Irhoud, Morocco and the Pan-African origin of Homo sapiens. Nature, 546, 289-292. https://doi. org/10.1038/nature22336
  72. Hublin, J.J., Sirakov, N., Aldeias, V., Bailey, S., Bard, E., Delvigne, V., Endarova, E., Fagault, Y., Fewlass, H., Hajdinjak, M., Kromer, B., Krumov, I., Marreiros, J., Martisius, N.L., Paskulin, L., Sinet-Mathiot, V., Meyer, M., Paabo, S., Popov, V., Rezek, Z., Sirakova, S., Skinner, M.M., Smith, G.M., Spasov, R., Talamo, S., Tuna, T., Wacker, L., Welker, F, Wilcke, A., Zahariev, N., McPherron, S.P. ve Tsanaova, T. (2020). Initial Upper Palaeolithic Homo sapiens from Bacho Kiro Cave, Bulgaria. Nature, 581, 299-302. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-020-2259-z
  73. Gilead, I. (1991). The Upper Paleolithic period in the Levant. Journal of World Prehistory, 5 (2), 105-154. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00974677
  74. Kisle v, M.E., Nadel, D. ve Carmi, I. (1992). Epipalaeolithic (19,000 BP) cereal and fruit diet at Ohalo II, Sea of Galilee, Israel. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 73, 161-166. https://doi.org/10.1016/0034-6667(92)90054-K
  75. Klein, R.G., (1999). The human career. The University of Chicago. Konner, M., ve Eaton, S.B. (2010). Paleolithic nutrition - twenty-five years later. Nutrition in Clinical Practice, 25(6), 594-602. https://doi.org/10.1177/0884533610385702
  76. Mashkour, M., Radu, V., Mohaseb, A., Hashemi, N., Otte, M. ve Shidrang, S. (2009). The Upper Paleolithic faunal remains from Yafteh Cave (Central Zagros) 2005 campaign. A preliminary study. M. Otte, F. Biglari ve J. Jaubert (Eds.) içinde, Iran Palaeolithic / Le Paléolithique d’Irani (s. 73-85), A rchaeopress.
  77. Nigst, P.R., Haesaerts, P., Damblon, F., Frank-Fellner, C., M allol, C., Viola, B., G ötzinger, M., Niven, L., Trnka, G. ve Hublin, J.J. (2014). Early modern human settlement of Europe north of t he Alps occurred 4 3,500 years ago in a cold steppe-type environment. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science (PNAS), 111(40), 14394-14399. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1412201111
  78. Power, R.C., Salazar-García, D.C. ve Henry, A.G. (2016). Dental calculus evidence of Gravettian diet and behaviour at Dolní Věstonice and Pavlov. J. A. Svobod a (Ed.) içinde, Dolní Věstonice II - chronostratigraphy, paleoethnology, paleoanthropology (s. 345-352), Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Institute of Archeology.
  79. Richards, M., Bandelt, H.J., Kivisild, T. ve Oppenheimer, S. (20 06). A model for the dispersal of modern humans out of Africa. H. Bandelt, V. Macaulay ve M.Richards (Eds.) içinde, Human mitochondrial DNA and the evolution of Homo sapiens (s. 225-265), Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/3-540-31789-9_10
  80. Stiner, M.C., Pehlevan, C., Sağır, M. ve Özer, İ. (2002). Zooarchaeological studies at Üçağızlı Cave: Preliminary results on paleolithic subsistence and shell ornaments. Arkeometri Sonuçları Toplantısı, 17, 2 9 -35. http://www.kulturvarliklari.gov.tr/sempozyum_pdf/arkeometri/17_arkeometri.pdf
  81. Weiss, E., Kislev, M.E., Simchoni, O. ve Nadel, D. (2004). Small-grained wild grasses as staple food at t he 23 000-year-old site Of Ohalo II, Israel. Economic Botany, 58 (Supplement): S I 25 - S13 4. https://doi.org /10.16 63/0 013 - 0001(2004)58[S125:SWGASF]2.0.CO;2