ORYANTALİZM VE AVRUPA’DA MÜSLÜMAN-DOĞU’YA DAİR ORYANTALİSTİK ÇALIŞMALARIN GELİŞİMİ

Özet

Doğu-Batı ikileminde Doğu'nun Batı karşısında geri kalmışlığının bir nedenini de Batı'nın kavram dünyasında aramak gerekir. Bu kavram dünyasının merkezinde kuşkusuz Batı Avrupa vardır. Avrupa dünya tarihindeki meşrulaştırmaya yönelik bir söylem üretmiştir. Edward Said'in belirttiği gibi bu söylem de oryantalizmdir. Felsefi kökeni Hegel'e dayanan bu söylem, Avrupa/Avrupa-dışı veya Batı/Doğu ikilemine dayanır. Burada Batı, dinamizmi (yani kapitalizmi), akılcılığı (yani dini dogmadan arınmışlığı), liberal demokratik yönetim sistemini temsil ederken aynı zamanda eşsiz erdemlerle kutsanmış olarak tahayyül edilmiştir. Batı akılcı, çalışkan, üretken, fedakâr, tutumlu, dürüst, otoriter ve olgun, gelişmiş, becerikli, hareketli, bağımsız, gelişime açık resmedilmiştir. Özellikle Doğuysa Batı'nın karşısındaki öteki olarak akılcı olmayan, keyfi, tembel, üretmeyen, tahammüllü, cazip olduğu kadar egzotik ve karmaşık, despot, bozulmuş, çocuksu ve olgunlaşmamış, geri kalmış, pasif, bağımlı, durağan ve değişmeyen olarak betimlenmiştir. Bu çalışmada öncelikle Batı literatüründe "Doğu" terimi için kullanılan tanımlar ve tarih boyunca Doğu ve Batı arasında değişen sınır hakkında bilgiler verilecektir. Oryantalizmin tanımı yapılarak oryantalist söylemin Avrupamerkezci tarihyazımına etkisi irdelenecektir. Son olarak ortaçağdan 19. yüzyılın ortalarına kadar geçen süreçte Batı Avrupa ülkelerinde hem kişisel hem de kurumsal anlamda yapılmış oryantalistik çalışmalara yer verilecektir

Abstract

Occident has interests to understand Eastern geography, people, daily life, and most importantly military power due to Orient was threatening militarily and economically Occident since archaic age. West curiosity on Orient outlined differences between Orient and Occident and it can be stated that this curiosity caused to create two opposite poles as Orient and Occident. From geographical perspective, borders between Orient and Occident have been changed over Anatolia and Balkans based on the political powers of each era. Historically, the hostility between Orthodoxy and Catholicism in Byzantine Empire has been altered due to Ottomans threaded as respectively Muslims – Catholics and Muslims – Protestants. In this research, personal and institutional oriental studies on Eastern world in West Europe are examined from a general perspective. Although, world has been separated into two poles as Orient and Occident, both worlds have been divided into sub-regions. Guenon divides Orient into three categories as the far east represents China, the middle east represents India, and the near east represents Islam world. Guenon suggests that the near east is mid-way between Orient and Occident. It is aimed to examine oriental studies on the near east – Muslim East – has been conducted in Europe until mid of 19th century. In modern ages, the number of studies on Eastern religions, languages, and resources increased in theology faculties of European universities. There are misunderstandings, biases, exaggerated, and insulting studies due to the political impacts, hostility against Islamic world and it has caused to generate Eurocentric historiography. Although Western researchers have followed more systematic, extensive and realistic approaches on Eastern studies in 19th century, the biased knowledge can still be found on following studies. The biased knowledge has been passed to following centuries due to Western studies does not reflect the Eastern images as they are in the oriental studies. Once these images entered in Western culture, they are accepted by societies and these biased images used in studies which can be found on following studies by citation. Eventually, these biased images are accepted in cultures. In 19th century, orientalism has been actively used for political interest and Western governments supported to open new institutions and departments for Eastern studies. In terms of practicality, the first Orient – Occident opposition can be found after administrative separation of Roman Empire. This separation has ended by political and cultural separation. Thus, the spiritual authority of Christians is politically divided and conflicts are emerged within Christian authority. It can also be said that Orient – Occident opposition has become more visible. Catholic Latin Europe turned into a closed society after the separation and it has changed with the crusades. Europeans has learned the first time for a long time about the richness and culture of the other– Byzantine and Islamic region – via the crusades. It is obvious that the orient – occident opposition occurred within Christian Catholics and Orthodox against Byzantine region. Europe used Orthodox as the first other to isolate itself from outside and create its identity. This hostility became Christian – Islam opposition after 8th century. Islamic world has been controlled and threatened European Christians from 7th century to Battle of Lepanto in 1571. Europeans never forget the fact that Islam has threatened and dominated Rome. The conflicts between Christians and Muslims mostly occurred due to the similarities rather than the differences. During the mediaeval ages, Muslims has encountered with Christians in Spain and Sicily and have made meaningful discussions because both religions have historical connections and their missions are almost same. It was expected to see dispute between two religions while they have these much similarities. Islamic world is not only threatened Europe from military perspective but also threatened from moral and ethical perspectives. This threat can be seen in oriental studies in Europe. The border between Orient and Occident has been changed based on the understanding of each other. The image and meaning of Orient in West Europe has changed based on the the level of threats of Muslims on Europe. The invincible Muslim-Turks image has begun to change as the undeveloped and weak Orient in West Europe after the last quarter of 17th century. In 19th century, Islamic Orient was seen as weak and beaten by Europeans from imperialist and colonialism perspectives. European economy has developed dramatically after the industrial revolution in 19th century. At the same period, Eastern world was seen as undeveloped, lack of social relationships and capitalist intuitions which developed Europe has by Western world. Thus, Orient is associated with irrational and empty beliefs due to they are not affected by Occident illumination. Finally, the relationship between Orient and Occident has new meaning.