KaydedilenlerDerginizi ekleyin

Dergiler / Harran Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi Dergisi / 2014 / Cilt: 11 Sayı: 3

Gebelikte Epilepsi Tedavisinde Yeni Nesil Antiepileptik İlaçlar

The Usage Of New Generation Antiepileptic Drugs During The Pregnancy

Nilgün Erten
Züleyha Erişgin
Sayfa
297–303
Yayın Tarihi
2014-12-15
DOI
—
🏛️Bu makalenin bibliyografik verileri ve tam metin bağlantısı DergiPark üzerinden sağlanmıştır.
DergiPark Kaydı ↗
✨

Yapay Zeka Hızlı Bakış & Çıkarımlar

AI Insight
⚡ TL;DR(1 Cümlede Hızlı Çıkarım)

Bu yazıda; gebelikte epilepsi hastalığının seyri, tedavide yeni nesil antiepileptik ilaçların kullanımı, bu ilaçların fetus üzerine etkileri ve farmakokinetiklerindeki değişikliklere değinilmiştir. 

📌 3 Maddede Bu Makale

🎯
Amaç & Hipotez:Epilepsi toplumda sık görülen bir hastalıktır.
📊
Temel Bulgular & Veri:Hem anne hem de bebeğin hayatını ilgilendiren gebelik sürecinde, epilepsi gibi kronik bir hastalığın takibi ayrı bir önem taşımaktadır.
💡
Sonuç & Katkı:Bu yazıda; gebelikte epilepsi hastalığının seyri, tedavide yeni nesil antiepileptik ilaçların kullanımı, bu ilaçların fetus üzerine etkileri ve farmakokinetiklerindeki değişikliklere değinilmiştir. 
🔬Tür:Derleme
📍Kapsam:Genişletilmiş Akademik Örneklem
⚙️Değişkenler:Epilepsi · gebelik · antiepileptik ilaçlar

Özet

Epilepsi toplumda sık görülen bir hastalıktır. Hem anne hem de bebeğin hayatını ilgilendiren gebelik sürecinde, epilepsi gibi kronik bir hastalığın takibi ayrı bir önem taşımaktadır. Bu yazıda; gebelikte epilepsi hastalığının seyri, tedavide yeni nesil antiepileptik ilaçların kullanımı, bu ilaçların fetus üzerine etkileri ve farmakokinetiklerindeki değişikliklere değinilmiştir. 

Abstract

Epilepsy is a common disease in the community. Chronic illness, such as epilepsy that has been concerning the lives of both mother and baby during pregnancy, following-up is getting more important. In this paper, the course of epilepsy during pregnancy, usage of new- generation antiepileptic drugs for treatment of epilepsy, the effects of these drugs on the fetus and changes of pharmacokinetic are mentioned.

🔖

Bu Makaleye Atıf Yap

Erten, N., Erişgin, Z. (2014). Gebelikte Epilepsi Tedavisinde Yeni Nesil Antiepileptik İlaçlar. Harran Üniversitesi Tıp Fakültesi Dergisi, Cilt: 11 Sayı: 3, 297–303. https://ajindex.com/articles/1081722

📄 Tam Metin PDF Okuyucu

📄

PDF görüntüleyici hazırlanıyor...

Kaynakça (128)

  1. Adab N, Tudur Smith C, Vinten J, Williamson PR, Winterbottom JB. Common antiepilepticdrugs in pregnancy in women with epilepsy. Cochrane Database SystRev. 2004(3):CD004848
  2. Brosh K, Matok I, Sheiner E, Koren G, Wiznitzer A, Gorodischer R, et al.Teratogenicdeterminants of firsttrimester exposure to antiepileptic medications. J Popul Ther Clin Pharmacol2011;18:e89–98.[Epub March 21, 2011]
  3. Crawford P. Epilepsy and pregnancy: good management reduces therisk. Prof Care Mother Child.1997;7(1):17-8
  4. Thomas SV. Managing epilepsy in pregnancy. Neurol. India. 2011;59(1): 59-65
  5. Thomas SV, Sindhu K, Ajaykumar B, Devi PB, Sujamol J. Maternaland obstetric outcome ofwomen with epilepsy. Seizure. 2009;18(3):163–166
  6. Mawer G, Briggs M, Baker GA, Bromley R, Coyle H, Eatock J, et al. Pregnancy with epilepsy: Obstetric and neonatal outcomeof a controlled study. Seizure. 2010;19(2):112–119
  7. Rauchenzauner M, Ehrensberger M, Prieschl M, Kapelari K, Bergmann M, Walser G, et al. Generalized tonic-clonic seizures and antiepileptic drugs during pregnancy-a mater of importance fort he baby? J Neurol. 2013;260(2):484-488
  8. Cassina M, Dilaghi A, Gianantonio ED, Cesari E, Santis MD, Mannaioni G, et al. Pregnancy outcome in women exposed to antiepileptic drugs: teratogenic role of maternal epilepsy and its pharmacolojic treatment. Reproductive toxicology. 2013 Aug;39:50-7
  9. Lima DC, do Vale TG, Arganaraz GA, Varella VPP, Filho RF, Cavalheiro EAet al. Behavioral evaluation of adult rat exposed in utero to maternal epileptic seizures. Epilesy and Behavior. 2010;18(1-2):45-49
  10. Hossain MA. Molecular mediators of hypoxic–ischemic injury and implications forepilepsy in t h e d e v e l o p i n g b r a i n. E p i l e p s y Be h a v 2005;7(2):204–13
  11. Kulaga S, Sheehy O, Zargarzadeh AH, Moussally K, Be´rard A. Antiepileptic drug use duringpregnancy: Perinatal outcomes. Seizure. 2011;20(9):667–672
  12. Ikonomidoua C, Turski L. Antiepileptic drugs and brain development. Epilepsy Research. 2010;88(1): 11- 22
  13. Diaz HS, Smith CR, Shen A, Mittendorf R, Hauser WA, Yerby M, et al. Are newer antiepileptic drugs associated with improved safety in pregnancy compared to older antiepileptic drugs? Epilepsy Currents. 2013; 13(1):15-16
  14. Meador KJ. Neurodevelopmental effects of antiepileptic drugs. Curr Neurol. Neurosci Rep2002;2(4):373–8
  15. Martinez FM, Pena MP, Pe´ rez Lopez-Fraile I, Castro Vilanova MD, EscartinSA, Martin MM, et al. Malformations and fetal death in the Spanish antiepilepticdrug and pregnancy registry: results at 6 years. Neurologia 2009;24(6):360–5
  16. Lowe SA. Anticonvulsants and drugs for neurological disease. Best Practice & ResearchClinical Obstetrics and Gynaecology. 2001; 15(6): 863-876
  17. Arne Reimers, Eylert Brodtkorb. SecondGeneration Antiepileptic Drugs andPregnancy: A Guide for Clinicians. Expert Rev Neurother. 2012;12(6):707- 717
  18. Reimers A, Helde G, Bråthen G, Brodtkorb E. Lamotrigine and its N 2-glucuronideduring pregnancy: the significance of renal clearance and estradiol. Epilepsy Res.2011;94(3),198–205
  19. Anderson GD. Pregnancy-induced changes in pharmacokinetics: a mechanistic-basedapproach. Clin. Pharmacokinet.2005; 44(10):989-1008
  20. Brodtkorb E, Reimers A. Seizure control and pharmacokinetics of antiepileptic drugsin pregnant women with epilepsy. Seizure. 2008;17(2),160-5
  21. Meador KJ, Baker GA, Browning N, Cohen MJ, Clayton-Smith J, Kalayjian LA, et al. Foetalantiepileptic drug exposure and verbal versus non-verbal abilities at three years of age.Brain. 2011; 134(Pt 2),396–404
  22. Wilson RD, Davies G, Désilets V, Reid GJ, Summers A, Wyatt P, et al. The use of folicacid for the prevention of neural tube defects and other congenital anomalies. J ObstetGynaecolCan. 2003;25(11):959–73
  23. Chen L, Liu F, Yoshida S, Kaneko S. Is breastfeeding of infants advisable for epileptic motherstaking antiepileptic drugs? Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 2010;64(5):5–468
  24. Ohman I, Vitols S, Tomson T. Lamotrigine in pregnancy: pharmacokinetics during delivery, inthe neona te, and during lact ation. Epil epsi a. 2000;.41(6):6–713 25) Ohman I, Vitols S, Tomson T. Pharmacokinetics of gabapentin during delivery, in the neonatalperiod, and lactation: does a fetal accumulation occur during pregnancy? Epilepsia. 2005;46(10):10–1624 26) Blackburn ST. Renal function in the neonate. J. Perinat. Neonatal Nurs. 1994;8(1):1–47
  25. Galanti M, Newport JD, Pennell PB, Titchner D, Newmanb M,et al. Postpartum depression in women with epilepsy: Influence of antiepileptic drugs in a p r o s p e c t i v e st u d y. Ep i l e p s y & Be h a v i o r. 2009;16(3):426–430
  26. Saramma PP, Sarma PS, Thomas SV. Women with epilepsy have poorer knowledge and skills inchild rearing than women without epilepsy. Seizure. 2011;20(7):575-9
  27. Tomson T, Battino D, Bonizzoni E, Craig J, Lindhout D, Sabers A, et al. Dose-dependent risk of malformations with antiepileptic drugs: an analysis of data from the EURAP epilepsy and pregnancy registry. Lancet Neurol. 2011;10(7):7–617 30) Reiff-Eldridge R, Heffner CR, Ephross SA. Monitoring pregnancy outcomes after prenatal drugexposure through prospective pregnancy registries: a pharmaceutical company commitment.American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. 2000;182(1 pt 1):159–163 31) Petrenaite V, Sabers A, Hansen-Schwartz J. Individual changes in lamotrigine plasmaconcentrations during pregnancy. Epilepsy Res. 2005;65(3):3–188
  28. Ohman I, Beck O, Vitols S, Tomson T. Plasma concentrations of lamotrigine and its 2-N-glucuronide metabolite during pregnancy in women with epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2008; 49(6):6–1080 33) Sabers A. Algorithm for lamotrigine dose adjustment before, during, and after pregnancy. ActaNeurol. Scand. 2012;126(1):1-4
  29. Miyagi SJ, Collier AC. Pediatric development of glucuronidation: the ontogeny of hepaticUGT1A4. Drug Metab. Dispos. 2007;35(9):9–1592
  30. Nordmo E, Aronsen L, Wasland K, Småbrekke L, Vorren S. Severe apnea in an infant exposedto lamotrigine i n b r e a s t m i l k. A n n. P h a r m a c o t h e r. 2009;43(11):11–1897
  31. Perucca E and Johannessen SI. The ideal pharmacokinetic properties of an antiepileptic drug:how close does levetiracetam come? Epileptic Disord. 2003;5(1):17–S26
  32. Vajda FJ, Graham J, Roten A, Lander CM, O'Brien TJ, Eadie M. Teratogenicity of the newerantiepileptic drugs-- the Australian experience. J Clin Neurosci. 2012;19(1):57-9
  33. Kim J, Kondratyev A, Gale K. Antiepileptic DrugInduced Neuronal Cell Death in theImmature Brain: Effects of Carbamazepine, Topiramate, and Levetiracetam as Monotherapy versusPolytherapy. JPharmacol Exp Ther. 2007;323(1):165–73
  34. Patsalos PN. Pharmacokinetic profile of levetiracetam: toward ideal characteristics. Pharmacol.Ther. 2000;85(2):2–85
  35. López-Fraile IP, Cid AO, Juste AO, Modrego PJ. Levetiracetam plasma level monitoring duringpregnancy, delivery, and postpartum: clinical and outcome implications. Epilepsy Behav. 2009;15(3):372-5
  36. Tomson T, Palm R, Källén K, Ben-Menachem E, Söderfeldt B, Danielsson B, et al. Pharmacokinetics of levetiracetam during pregnancy, delivery, in the n e o n a t a l p e ri o d, a n d l a c t a ti o n. Ep il e p si a. 2007;48(6):1111-6
  37. Westin AA, Reimers A, Helde G, Nakken KO, Brodtkorb E. Serum concentration/dose ratio oflevetiracetam before, during and after pregnancy. Seizure.2008;17(2):192-8
  38. Johannessen SI, Helde G, Brodtkorb E. Levetiracetam concentrations in serum and in breastmilk at birth and during lactation. Epilepsia.2005;46(5):775-7
  39. Flesch G. Overview of the clinical pharmacokinetics of oxcarbazepine. Clin. Drug Investig.2004; 24(4):185–203
  40. Almeida L, Soares-da-Silva P. Eslicarbazepine a c e t a t e (BIA 2 - 0 9 3 ). Ne u r o t h e r a p e u t i c s. 2007;4(1):88–96
  41. Christensen J, Sabers A, Sidenius P. Oxcarbazepine concentrations during pregnancy: aretrospective study in patients with epilepsy. Neurology.2006;67(8):1497-9
  42. Wegner I, Edelbroek P, de Haan GJ, Lindhout D, Sander JW. Drug monitoring of lamotrigineand oxcarbazepine combination during pregnancy.Epilepsia. 2010;51(12):2500–2
  43. Petrenaite V, Sabers A, Hansen-Schwartz J. Seizure deterioration in women treated withoxcarbazepine during pregnancy. Epilepsy Res. 2009; 84(2–3):245–9
  44. Bülau P, Paar WD, von Unruh GE. Pharmacokinetics of oxcarbazepine and 10-hydroxy-carbazepine in the newborn child of an oxcarbazepine-treated mother. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol.1988; 34(3):311–3
  45. Lutz UC, Wiatr G, Gaertner HJ, Bartels M. Oxcarbazepine treatment during breastfeeding: acase report. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 2007;27(6):6–732
  46. Bennett GD, Amore BM, Finnell RH, Wlodarczyk B, Kalhorn TF, Skiles GL, et al. Teratogenicity of carbamazepin-10, 11-epoxide and oxcarbazepine in the SWVMouse.J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1996; 279 (3):1237-42
  47. Erisgin Z. Sıçanlarda intrauterin oxcarcazepin ve gabapentin uygulamasının postnatal dönemdesubstantia nigradaki nöron sayısına etkileri. Ondokuz Mayıs Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü,Samsun, Doktora Tezi, 2012
  48. Friis ML, Kristensen O, Boas J, Dalby M, Deth SH, Gram L, et al. Therapeutic experiences with 947 epileptic out-patients in oxcarbazepine treatment. Acta Neurol Scand. 1993; 87(3):224–7
  49. Westin AA, Nakken KO, Johannessen SI, Reimers A, Lillestølen KM, Brodtkorb E. Serumconcentration/dose ratio of topiramate during pregnancy. Epilepsia. 2009;50(3):480-5
  50. Ohman I, Sabers A, de Flon P, Luef G, Tomson T. Pharmacokinetics of topiramate duringpregnancy. Epilepsy Res. 2009;87(2-3):124–9
  51. Hunt S, Russell A, Smithson WH, Parsons L, Robertson I, Waddell R, et al. Topiramate in pregnancy: preliminary experience from the UK Epilepsy and Pregnancy Register. Neurology. 2008;71(4):272–6
  52. Ornoy A, Zvi N, Arnon J, Wajnberg R, Shechtman S, Diav-Citrin O. The outcome of pregnancyfollowing topiramate treatment: a study on 52 pregnancies. Reprod. Toxicol. 2008;25(3):388–9
  53. Ohman I, Vitols S, Luef G, Söderfeldt B, Tomson T. Topiramate kinetics during delivery,lactation, and in the neonate: preliminary observations. Epilepsia. 2002; 43(10):1157–60
  54. Gentile S. Topiramate in pregnancy and breastfeeding. Clin. Drug Investig. 2009;29(2):139–141
  55. Bockbrader HN, Wesche D, Miller R, Chapel S, Janiczek N, Burger P. Acomparison of thepharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of pregabalin and gabapentin. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 2010;49(10):661–9
  56. Petrere JA, Anderson JA. Developmental Toxicity Studies in Mice, Rats, and Rabbits with the Anticonvulsant Gabapentin. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 1994;23:585-9
  57. Montouris G. Gabapentin exposure in human pregnancy: results from the GabapentinPregnancy Registry. Epilepsy Behav. 2003;4(3):310–7
  58. Wilton LV, Sakir S. Apost-marketing surveillance study of gabapentine as add on therapy for3,100 patients in England. Epilepsia. 2002;43(9):983-92
  59. Kristensen JH, Ilett KF, Hackett LP, Kohan R. Gabapentin and breastfeeding: a case report. J.Hum. Lact. 2006;22(4):426–8
  60. Ohman I, de Flon P, Tomson T. Pregabalin kinetics in the neonatal period, and during lactation. Epilepsia. 2011;52(6):249–50
  61. Oles KS, Bell WL. Zonisamide concentrations during pregnancy. Ann. Pharmacother. 2008;42(7):1139–41
  62. Kawada K, Itoh S, Kusaka T, Isobe K, Ishii M. Pharmacokinetics of zonisamide in perinatalperiod. Brain Dev. 2002;24(2):95–7
  63. Shimoyama R, Ohkubo T, Sugawara K. Monitoring of zonisamide in human breast milk andmaternal plasma by solid-phase extraction HPLC method. Biomed. Chromatogr. 1999; 13(5):370–2
  64. Johannessen Landmark C, Patsalos PN. Drug interactions involving the new second- and third-generation anti epil epti c drugs. Expe rt Rev. Neurothe r. 2010;10(1):119–40
  65. Adab N, Tudur Smith C, Vinten J, Williamson PR, Winterbottom JB. Common antiepilepticdrugs in pregnancy in women with epilepsy. Cochrane Database SystRev. 2004(3):CD004848
  66. Brosh K, Matok I, Sheiner E, Koren G, Wiznitzer A, Gorodischer R, et al.Teratogenicdeterminants of firsttrimester exposure to antiepileptic medications. J Popul Ther Clin Pharmacol2011;18:e89–98.[Epub March 21, 2011]
  67. Crawford P. Epilepsy and pregnancy: good management reduces therisk. Prof Care Mother Child.1997;7(1):17-8
  68. Thomas SV. Managing epilepsy in pregnancy. Neurol. India. 2011;59(1): 59-65
  69. Thomas SV, Sindhu K, Ajaykumar B, Devi PB, Sujamol J. Maternaland obstetric outcome ofwomen with epilepsy. Seizure. 2009;18(3):163–166
  70. Mawer G, Briggs M, Baker GA, Bromley R, Coyle H, Eatock J, et al. Pregnancy with epilepsy: Obstetric and neonatal outcomeof a controlled study. Seizure. 2010;19(2):112–119
  71. Rauchenzauner M, Ehrensberger M, Prieschl M, Kapelari K, Bergmann M, Walser G, et al. Generalized tonic-clonic seizures and antiepileptic drugs during pregnancy-a mater of importance fort he baby? J Neurol. 2013;260(2):484-488
  72. Cassina M, Dilaghi A, Gianantonio ED, Cesari E, Santis MD, Mannaioni G, et al. Pregnancy outcome in women exposed to antiepileptic drugs: teratogenic role of maternal epilepsy and its pharmacolojic treatment. Reproductive toxicology. 2013 Aug;39:50-7
  73. Lima DC, do Vale TG, Arganaraz GA, Varella VPP, Filho RF, Cavalheiro EAet al. Behavioral evaluation of adult rat exposed in utero to maternal epileptic seizures. Epilesy and Behavior. 2010;18(1-2):45-49
  74. Hossain MA. Molecular mediators of hypoxic–ischemic injury and implications forepilepsy in t h e d e v e l o p i n g b r a i n. E p i l e p s y Be h a v 2005;7(2):204–13
  75. Kulaga S, Sheehy O, Zargarzadeh AH, Moussally K, Be´rard A. Antiepileptic drug use duringpregnancy: Perinatal outcomes. Seizure. 2011;20(9):667–672
  76. Ikonomidoua C, Turski L. Antiepileptic drugs and brain development. Epilepsy Research. 2010;88(1): 11- 22
  77. Diaz HS, Smith CR, Shen A, Mittendorf R, Hauser WA, Yerby M, et al. Are newer antiepileptic drugs associated with improved safety in pregnancy compared to older antiepileptic drugs? Epilepsy Currents. 2013; 13(1):15-16
  78. Meador KJ. Neurodevelopmental effects of antiepileptic drugs. Curr Neurol. Neurosci Rep2002;2(4):373–8
  79. Martinez FM, Pena MP, Pe´ rez Lopez-Fraile I, Castro Vilanova MD, EscartinSA, Martin MM, et al. Malformations and fetal death in the Spanish antiepilepticdrug and pregnancy registry: results at 6 years. Neurologia 2009;24(6):360–5
  80. Lowe SA. Anticonvulsants and drugs for neurological disease. Best Practice & ResearchClinical Obstetrics and Gynaecology. 2001; 15(6): 863-876
  81. Arne Reimers, Eylert Brodtkorb. SecondGeneration Antiepileptic Drugs andPregnancy: A Guide for Clinicians. Expert Rev Neurother. 2012;12(6):707- 717
  82. Reimers A, Helde G, Bråthen G, Brodtkorb E. Lamotrigine and its N 2-glucuronideduring pregnancy: the significance of renal clearance and estradiol. Epilepsy Res.2011;94(3),198–205
  83. Anderson GD. Pregnancy-induced changes in pharmacokinetics: a mechanistic-basedapproach. Clin. Pharmacokinet.2005; 44(10):989-1008
  84. Brodtkorb E, Reimers A. Seizure control and pharmacokinetics of antiepileptic drugsin pregnant women with epilepsy. Seizure. 2008;17(2),160-5
  85. Meador KJ, Baker GA, Browning N, Cohen MJ, Clayton-Smith J, Kalayjian LA, et al. Foetalantiepileptic drug exposure and verbal versus non-verbal abilities at three years of age.Brain. 2011; 134(Pt 2),396–404
  86. Wilson RD, Davies G, Désilets V, Reid GJ, Summers A, Wyatt P, et al. The use of folicacid for the prevention of neural tube defects and other congenital anomalies. J ObstetGynaecolCan. 2003;25(11):959–73
  87. Chen L, Liu F, Yoshida S, Kaneko S. Is breastfeeding of infants advisable for epileptic motherstaking antiepileptic drugs? Psychiatry Clin. Neurosci. 2010;64(5):5–468
  88. Ohman I, Vitols S, Tomson T. Lamotrigine in pregnancy: pharmacokinetics during delivery, inthe neona te, and during lact ation. Epil epsi a. 2000;.41(6):6–713 25) Ohman I, Vitols S, Tomson T. Pharmacokinetics of gabapentin during delivery, in the neonatalperiod, and lactation: does a fetal accumulation occur during pregnancy? Epilepsia. 2005;46(10):10–1624 26) Blackburn ST. Renal function in the neonate. J. Perinat. Neonatal Nurs. 1994;8(1):1–47
  89. Galanti M, Newport JD, Pennell PB, Titchner D, Newmanb M,et al. Postpartum depression in women with epilepsy: Influence of antiepileptic drugs in a p r o s p e c t i v e st u d y. Ep i l e p s y & Be h a v i o r. 2009;16(3):426–430
  90. Saramma PP, Sarma PS, Thomas SV. Women with epilepsy have poorer knowledge and skills inchild rearing than women without epilepsy. Seizure. 2011;20(7):575-9
  91. Tomson T, Battino D, Bonizzoni E, Craig J, Lindhout D, Sabers A, et al. Dose-dependent risk of malformations with antiepileptic drugs: an analysis of data from the EURAP epilepsy and pregnancy registry. Lancet Neurol. 2011;10(7):7–617 30) Reiff-Eldridge R, Heffner CR, Ephross SA. Monitoring pregnancy outcomes after prenatal drugexposure through prospective pregnancy registries: a pharmaceutical company commitment.American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. 2000;182(1 pt 1):159–163 31) Petrenaite V, Sabers A, Hansen-Schwartz J. Individual changes in lamotrigine plasmaconcentrations during pregnancy. Epilepsy Res. 2005;65(3):3–188
  92. Ohman I, Beck O, Vitols S, Tomson T. Plasma concentrations of lamotrigine and its 2-N-glucuronide metabolite during pregnancy in women with epilepsy. Epilepsia. 2008; 49(6):6–1080 33) Sabers A. Algorithm for lamotrigine dose adjustment before, during, and after pregnancy. ActaNeurol. Scand. 2012;126(1):1-4
  93. Miyagi SJ, Collier AC. Pediatric development of glucuronidation: the ontogeny of hepaticUGT1A4. Drug Metab. Dispos. 2007;35(9):9–1592
  94. Nordmo E, Aronsen L, Wasland K, Småbrekke L, Vorren S. Severe apnea in an infant exposedto lamotrigine i n b r e a s t m i l k. A n n. P h a r m a c o t h e r. 2009;43(11):11–1897
  95. Perucca E and Johannessen SI. The ideal pharmacokinetic properties of an antiepileptic drug:how close does levetiracetam come? Epileptic Disord. 2003;5(1):17–S26
  96. Vajda FJ, Graham J, Roten A, Lander CM, O'Brien TJ, Eadie M. Teratogenicity of the newerantiepileptic drugs-- the Australian experience. J Clin Neurosci. 2012;19(1):57-9
  97. Kim J, Kondratyev A, Gale K. Antiepileptic DrugInduced Neuronal Cell Death in theImmature Brain: Effects of Carbamazepine, Topiramate, and Levetiracetam as Monotherapy versusPolytherapy. JPharmacol Exp Ther. 2007;323(1):165–73
  98. Patsalos PN. Pharmacokinetic profile of levetiracetam: toward ideal characteristics. Pharmacol.Ther. 2000;85(2):2–85
  99. López-Fraile IP, Cid AO, Juste AO, Modrego PJ. Levetiracetam plasma level monitoring duringpregnancy, delivery, and postpartum: clinical and outcome implications. Epilepsy Behav. 2009;15(3):372-5
  100. Tomson T, Palm R, Källén K, Ben-Menachem E, Söderfeldt B, Danielsson B, et al. Pharmacokinetics of levetiracetam during pregnancy, delivery, in the n e o n a t a l p e ri o d, a n d l a c t a ti o n. Ep il e p si a. 2007;48(6):1111-6
  101. Westin AA, Reimers A, Helde G, Nakken KO, Brodtkorb E. Serum concentration/dose ratio oflevetiracetam before, during and after pregnancy. Seizure.2008;17(2):192-8
  102. Johannessen SI, Helde G, Brodtkorb E. Levetiracetam concentrations in serum and in breastmilk at birth and during lactation. Epilepsia.2005;46(5):775-7
  103. Flesch G. Overview of the clinical pharmacokinetics of oxcarbazepine. Clin. Drug Investig.2004; 24(4):185–203
  104. Almeida L, Soares-da-Silva P. Eslicarbazepine a c e t a t e (BIA 2 - 0 9 3 ). Ne u r o t h e r a p e u t i c s. 2007;4(1):88–96
  105. Christensen J, Sabers A, Sidenius P. Oxcarbazepine concentrations during pregnancy: aretrospective study in patients with epilepsy. Neurology.2006;67(8):1497-9
  106. Wegner I, Edelbroek P, de Haan GJ, Lindhout D, Sander JW. Drug monitoring of lamotrigineand oxcarbazepine combination during pregnancy.Epilepsia. 2010;51(12):2500–2
  107. Petrenaite V, Sabers A, Hansen-Schwartz J. Seizure deterioration in women treated withoxcarbazepine during pregnancy. Epilepsy Res. 2009; 84(2–3):245–9
  108. Bülau P, Paar WD, von Unruh GE. Pharmacokinetics of oxcarbazepine and 10-hydroxy-carbazepine in the newborn child of an oxcarbazepine-treated mother. Eur. J. Clin. Pharmacol.1988; 34(3):311–3
  109. Lutz UC, Wiatr G, Gaertner HJ, Bartels M. Oxcarbazepine treatment during breastfeeding: acase report. J. Clin. Psychopharmacol. 2007;27(6):6–732
  110. Bennett GD, Amore BM, Finnell RH, Wlodarczyk B, Kalhorn TF, Skiles GL, et al. Teratogenicity of carbamazepin-10, 11-epoxide and oxcarbazepine in the SWVMouse.J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1996; 279 (3):1237-42
  111. Erisgin Z. Sıçanlarda intrauterin oxcarcazepin ve gabapentin uygulamasının postnatal dönemdesubstantia nigradaki nöron sayısına etkileri. Ondokuz Mayıs Üniversitesi Sağlık Bilimleri Enstitüsü,Samsun, Doktora Tezi, 2012
  112. Friis ML, Kristensen O, Boas J, Dalby M, Deth SH, Gram L, et al. Therapeutic experiences with 947 epileptic out-patients in oxcarbazepine treatment. Acta Neurol Scand. 1993; 87(3):224–7
  113. Westin AA, Nakken KO, Johannessen SI, Reimers A, Lillestølen KM, Brodtkorb E. Serumconcentration/dose ratio of topiramate during pregnancy. Epilepsia. 2009;50(3):480-5
  114. Ohman I, Sabers A, de Flon P, Luef G, Tomson T. Pharmacokinetics of topiramate duringpregnancy. Epilepsy Res. 2009;87(2-3):124–9
  115. Hunt S, Russell A, Smithson WH, Parsons L, Robertson I, Waddell R, et al. Topiramate in pregnancy: preliminary experience from the UK Epilepsy and Pregnancy Register. Neurology. 2008;71(4):272–6
  116. Ornoy A, Zvi N, Arnon J, Wajnberg R, Shechtman S, Diav-Citrin O. The outcome of pregnancyfollowing topiramate treatment: a study on 52 pregnancies. Reprod. Toxicol. 2008;25(3):388–9
  117. Ohman I, Vitols S, Luef G, Söderfeldt B, Tomson T. Topiramate kinetics during delivery,lactation, and in the neonate: preliminary observations. Epilepsia. 2002; 43(10):1157–60
  118. Gentile S. Topiramate in pregnancy and breastfeeding. Clin. Drug Investig. 2009;29(2):139–141
  119. Bockbrader HN, Wesche D, Miller R, Chapel S, Janiczek N, Burger P. Acomparison of thepharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of pregabalin and gabapentin. Clin. Pharmacokinet. 2010;49(10):661–9
  120. Petrere JA, Anderson JA. Developmental Toxicity Studies in Mice, Rats, and Rabbits with the Anticonvulsant Gabapentin. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 1994;23:585-9
  121. Montouris G. Gabapentin exposure in human pregnancy: results from the GabapentinPregnancy Registry. Epilepsy Behav. 2003;4(3):310–7
  122. Wilton LV, Sakir S. Apost-marketing surveillance study of gabapentine as add on therapy for3,100 patients in England. Epilepsia. 2002;43(9):983-92
  123. Kristensen JH, Ilett KF, Hackett LP, Kohan R. Gabapentin and breastfeeding: a case report. J.Hum. Lact. 2006;22(4):426–8
  124. Ohman I, de Flon P, Tomson T. Pregabalin kinetics in the neonatal period, and during lactation. Epilepsia. 2011;52(6):249–50
  125. Oles KS, Bell WL. Zonisamide concentrations during pregnancy. Ann. Pharmacother. 2008;42(7):1139–41
  126. Kawada K, Itoh S, Kusaka T, Isobe K, Ishii M. Pharmacokinetics of zonisamide in perinatalperiod. Brain Dev. 2002;24(2):95–7
  127. Shimoyama R, Ohkubo T, Sugawara K. Monitoring of zonisamide in human breast milk andmaternal plasma by solid-phase extraction HPLC method. Biomed. Chromatogr. 1999; 13(5):370–2
  128. Johannessen Landmark C, Patsalos PN. Drug interactions involving the new second- and third-generation anti epil epti c drugs. Expe rt Rev. Neurothe r. 2010;10(1):119–40.