SavedAdd your journal

Journals / Mehmet Akif Ersoy Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi / 2026 / Cilt: 17 Sayı: 1

Comparative Analysis of Crystallographic, Pyrolytic, and Micro-Mechanical Properties of Anatolian Walnut (Juglans regia L.) and White Mulberry (Morus alba L.) Stem Wood

Anadolu cevizi (Juglans regia L.) ve Ak dut (Morus alba L.) Gövde Odunlarının Kristalografik, Pirolitik ve Mikro-Mekanik Özelliklerin Karşılaştırmalı Analizi

Göksu Şirin(TOKAT GAZİOSMANPAŞA ÜNİVERSİTESİ, ALMUS MESLEK YÜKSEKOKULU)0000-0003-1394-1697
Pages
21–32
Publication Date
2026-06-30
🏛️Bibliographic metadata and full text access for this article are provided via DergiPark.
DergiPark Record ↗
✨

AI Summary & Key Takeaways

AI Insight
⚡ TL;DR(Too Long; Didn't Read)

Consequently, it was determined that the degree of ordering in the cellulose chains within the cell wall exerts a direct and decisive influence on both the thermal decomposition profile and the microhardness performance of the wood material.

📌 3 Key Takeaways

🎯
Objective & Hypothesis:This study comparatively investigates the multi-scale relationships between the crystallographic, thermal, and micromechanical properties of Anatolian walnut (Juglans regia L.) and white mulberry (Morus alba L.) stem woods.
📊
Key Findings & Data:XRD analysis revealed that while the crystallinity index and crystallite size of white mulberry were 78% and 2.38 nm, respectively, these values remained at 70% and 1.01 nm for Anatolian walnut.
💡
Conclusion & Impact:Consequently, it was determined that the degree of ordering in the cellulose chains within the cell wall exerts a direct and decisive influence on both the thermal decomposition profile and the microhardness performance of the wood material.
🔬Design:Araştırma Makalesi
📍Scope:Comprehensive Sample
⚙️Variables:Juglans regia L. · Morus alba L. · TGA

Abstract

This study comparatively investigates the multi-scale relationships between the crystallographic, thermal, and micromechanical properties of Anatolian walnut (Juglans regia L.) and white mulberry (Morus alba L.) stem woods. X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and Vickers microhardness methods were employed for the characterization of the lignocellulosic structure. XRD analysis revealed that while the crystallinity index and crystallite size of white mulberry were 78% and 2.38 nm, respectively, these values remained at 70% and 1.01 nm for Anatolian walnut. TGA findings demonstrated that white mulberry exhibited superior stability during the main cellulose degradation phase, with a maximum degradation temperature (Tmax) of approximately 345 °C and a residue amount of 40.9%, attributed to its high cellular organization. Conversely, although Anatolian walnut presented a Tmax of 333 °C, it reached a higher char yield of 45.7% at the end of the pyrolysis process due to its complex lignin structure. In microhardness tests reflecting the anisotropic nature of wood, white mulberry exhibited approximately 2.5 times higher mechanical resistance than walnut wood in both parallel and perpendicular grain directions. Consequently, it was determined that the degree of ordering in the cellulose chains within the cell wall exerts a direct and decisive influence on both the thermal decomposition profile and the microhardness performance of the wood material.

Özet

Bu çalışmada, Anadolu cevizi (Juglans regia L.) ve Ak dut (Morus alba L.) gövde odunlarının kristalografik, termal ve mikro mekanik özellikleri arasındaki çok ölçekli ilişkiler karşılaştırmalı olarak incelenmiştir. Lignoselülozik yapının karakterizasyonunda X-ışını kırınımı (XRD), termogravimetrik analiz (TGA) ve Vickers mikrosertlik yöntemlerinden yararlanılmıştır. XRD analizleri sonucunda Ak dutun kristalinite indeksi %78 ve kristalit boyutu 2,38 nm olarak belirlenirken Anadolu cevizinde bu değerler sırasıyla %70 ve 1,01 nm seviyesinde kalmıştır. TGA bulguları, Ak dutun yüksek hücresel organizasyonuna bağlı olarak selülozun ana bozunma evresinde 345 °C civarında bir maksimum bozunma sıcaklığı ve %40,9 oranında kalıntı miktarı ile daha yüksek bir stabilite sergilediğini göstermiştir. Buna karşın, Anadolu cevizi, 333 °C maksimum bozunma sıcaklığı oluşturmasına rağmen, sahip olduğu kompleks lignin yapısı sayesinde piroliz süreci sonunda %45,7 ile daha yüksek bir kömür verimine ulaşmıştır. Odunun anizotropik doğasını yansıtan mikrosertlik testlerinde, Ak dut odunu, liflere paralel ve dik yönlerde yapılan ölçümlerde ceviz odununa kıyasla yaklaşık 2,5 kat daha yüksek mekanik direnç göstermiştir. Elde edilen tüm veriler ışığında, hücre duvarındaki selüloz zincirlerinin düzenlilik derecesinin, odun materyalinin hem termal bozunma profili hem de mikrosertlik performansı üzerinde doğrudan ve belirleyici bir etkiye sahip olduğu sonucuna varılmıştır.

🔖

Cite This Article

Şirin, G. (2026). Comparative Analysis of Crystallographic, Pyrolytic, and Micro-Mechanical Properties of Anatolian Walnut (Juglans regia L.) and White Mulberry (Morus alba L.) Stem Wood. Mehmet Akif Ersoy Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi, Cilt: 17 Sayı: 1, 21–32. https://doi.org/10.29048/makufebed.1911637

📄 Full Text PDF Viewer

📄

PDF görüntüleyici hazırlanıyor...

References (95)

  1. Agarwal, U. P., Ralph, S. A., Baez, C., Reiner, R. S., & Verrill, S. P. (2017). Effect of sample moisture content on XRD-estimated cellulose crystallinity index and crystallite size. Cellulose, 24(5), 1971–1984. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-017-1259-0
  2. Aguayo, M. G., Fernández-Pérez, A., Oviedo, C., Reyes, G., & Reyes-Contreras, P. (2020). Relationship between structural characteristics of cellulose nanocrystals obtained from kraft pulp. Nanomaterials, 10(9), 1775. https://doi.org/10.3390/nano10091775
  3. Andersson, S., Serimaa, R., Paakkari, T., Saranpää, P., & Pesonen, E. (2003). Crystallinity of wood and the size of cellulose crystallites in Norway spruce (Picea abies). Journal of Wood Science, 49(6), 531–537. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10086-003-0518-x
  4. Andrade, M. D. P., Ornaghi, H. L., Jr., Monticeli, F. M., Poletto, M., & Zattera, A. J. (2024). A survey on the effect of the chemical composition on the thermal, physical, mechanical, and dynamic mechanical thermal analysis of three Brazilian wood species. Polymers, 16(18), 2651. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16182651
  5. Apaydın Varol, E., & Mutlu, Ü. (2023). TGA-FTIR analysis of biomass samples based on the thermal decomposition behavior of hemicellulose, cellulose, and lignin. Energies, 16(9), 3674. https://doi.org/10.3390/en16093674
  6. Bachtiar, E. V., Rüggeberg, M., & Niemz, P. (2017a). Mechanical behavior of walnut (Juglans regia L.) and cherry (Prunus avium L.) wood in tension and compression in all anatomical directions: Revisiting the tensile/compressive stiffness ratios of wood. Holzforschung, 72(1), 71–80. https://doi.org/10.1515/hf-2017-0053
  7. Bachtiar, E. V., Rüggeberg, M., Hering, S., Kaliske, M., & Niemz, P. (2017b). Estimating shear properties of walnut wood: A combined experimental and theoretical approach. Materials and Structures, 50(6), 248.https://doi.org/10.1617/s11527-017-1119-2
  8. Bora, N. R., Parthiban, K. T., Mahendiran, R., Kumar, P., Priyadharshini, P., Arasakumar, E., & Tamuk, O. (2023). Physicochemical characterization of mulberry genetic resources and varieties for generation of sustainable biomass energy. Biological Forum—An International Journal, 15(8), 424–430. Bouramdane, Y., Haddad, M., Mazar, A., Aît Lyazidi, S., Oudghiri Hassani, H., & Boukir, A. (2024). Aged lignocellulose fibers of cedar wood (9th and 12th century): Structural investigation using FTIR-deconvolution spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction (XRD), crystallinity indices, and morphological SEM analyses. Polymers, 16(23), 3334. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym16233334
  9. Brebu, M., & Vasile, C. (2010). Thermal degradation of lignin—A review. Cellulose Chemistry and Technology, 44(9), 353–363.
  10. Bridgwater, A. V. (2012). Review of fast pyrolysis of biomass and product upgrading. Biomass and Bioenergy, 38, 68–94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biombioe.2011.01.048
  11. Carrillo-Varela, I., Pereira, M., & Mendonça, R. T. (2018). Determination of polymorphic changes in cellulose from Eucalyptus spp. fibres after alkalization. Cellulose, 25(12), 6831–6845. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-018-2060-4
  12. Castro, G., Bergante, S., Sansone, D., Bidini, C., & Pelleri, F. (2019). Common walnut (Juglans regia L.) wood characteristics in two Italian plantations. Annals of Silvicultural Research, 43(1), 35–40. https://doi.org/10.12899/asr-1818
  13. Cullity, B. D., & Stock, S. R. (2001). Elements of X-ray diffraction (3rd ed.). Prentice Hall.
  14. Çavuş, V. (2021). Weathering performance of mulberry wood with UV varnish applied and its mechanical properties. BioResources, 16(4), 6791–6805.
  15. Dadhwal, R., & Banerjee, R. (2023). Ethnopharmacology, pharmacotherapeutics, biomedicinal and toxicological profile of Morus alba L.: A comprehensive review. South African Journal of Botany, 158, 98–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sajb.2023.05.006
  16. Dema, J., Zaw, Z., Fan, Z. X., Panthi, S., & Fu, P. L. (2024). Site-specific climate sensitivity of tree-ring width and vessel anatomical features of Juglans regia L. in Bhutan Himalaya. Global Ecology and Conservation, 53, e03023. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2024.e03023
  17. Djikanović, D., Devečerski, A., Steinbach, G., Simonović, J., Matović, B., Garab, G., Kalauzi, A., & Radotić, K. (2016). Comparison of macromolecular interactions in the cell walls of hardwood, softwood and maize by fluorescence and FTIR spectroscopy, differential polarization laser scanning microscopy and X-ray diffraction. Wood Science and Technology, 50(3), 547–566.
  18. Donaldson, L. (2008). Microfibril angle: Measurement, variation and relationships–A review. IAWA Journal, 29(4), 345–386.
  19. Dönmez, D., Karaat, F. E., Aka Kaçar, Y., & Şimşek, Ö. (2023). Molecular characterization and association of ISSR markers with some fruit properties of Morus alba L.genotypes in Southeastern Türkiye. GeneticResources and Crop Evolution, 70(7), 2129–2142.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10722-023-01563-2
  20. Dutta, P. L., Nath, I., & Devi, N. (2025). Mulberry wood: A comprehensive review of properties, applications and sustainable industrial utilizations. Journal of Experimental Agriculture International, 47(6), 260–273. https://doi.org/10.9734/jeai/2025/v47i63486
  21. Erarslan, Z. B., Karagöz, S., & Kültür, Ş. (2021). Comparative morphological and anatomical studies on Morus species (Moraceae) in Turkey. Turkish Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences, 18(2), 157–167. https://doi.org/10.4274/tjps.galenos.2020.02779
  22. Ermeydan, M. A., Dizman, R., Tomak, E. D., & Can, A. (2023). Ekstraktiflerin dut odununun dış ortam dayanımına etkisi. Bartın Orman Fakültesi Dergisi, 25(1), 33–42. https://doi.org/10.24011/barofd.1239337
  23. Foster, E. J., Moon, R. J., Agarwal, U. P., Bortner, M. J., Bras, J., Camarero-Espinosa, S., Chan, K. J., Clift, M. J. D., Cranston, E. D., Eichhorn, S. J., Fox, D. M., Hamad, W. Y., Heux, L., Jean, B., Korey, M., Nieh, W., Ong, K. J., Reid, M. S., Renneckar, S., Roberts, R., Shatkin, J. A., Simonsen, J., Stinson-Bagby, K., Wanasekara, N., & Youngblood, J. (2018). Current characterization methods for cellulose nanomaterials. Chemical Society Reviews, 47(8), 2609–2679. https://doi.org/10.1039/C6CS00895J
  24. French, A. D., & Santiago Cintrón, M. (2013). Cellulose polymorphy, crystallite size, and the Segal crystallinity index. Cellulose, 20(1), 583–588. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-012-9833-y
  25. French, A. D. (2014). Idealized powder diffraction patterns for cellulose polymorphs. Cellulose, 21(2), 885–896. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-013-0030-4
  26. Gindl, W., Gupta, H. S., Schöberl, T., Lichtenegger, H. C., & Fratzl, P. (2004). Mechanical properties of spruce wood cell walls by nanoindentation. Applied Physics A, 79(8), 2069–2073. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00339-004-2864-y
  27. Golpayegani, A. S., Thevenon, M. F., Bremaud, I., Pourtahmasi, K., & Gril, J. (2017). Natural durability and dimensional stability of white mulberry (Morus alba L.) for Middle Eastern lutes. Madera y Bosques, 23(2), 193–204. https://doi.org/10.21829/myb.2017.2321447
  28. Guo, J., Chen, J., Meng, Q., Ploszczanski, L., Liu, J. A., Luo, R., Jin, T., Siedlaczek, P., Lichtenegger, H. C., Yin, Y., & Rennhofer, H. (2022). Molecular and crystal structures of cellulose in severely deteriorated archaeological wood. Cellulose, 29(18), 9549–9568. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-022-04856-4
  29. Gündüz, G., Yıldırım, N., Şirin, G., & Onat, S. M. (2009). Ak dut ağacının anatomik, kimyasal, fiziksel ve mekanik özellikleri. Düzce Üniversitesi Orman Fakültesi Ormancılık Dergisi, 5(1), 131–149.
  30. Hindi, S. S. (2017). Some crystallographic properties of cellulose I as affected by cellulosic resource, smoothing, and computation methods. Cellulose, 6(1), 1–12.
  31. Huang, C., Qin, Q., Liu, Y., Duan, G., Xiao, P., Huang, Y., Mei, C., Han, X., Han, J., He, S., & Jiang, S. (2025). Physicochemical, polymeric and microbial modifications of wood toward advanced functional applications: A review. Chemical Society Reviews, 54(19), 9027–9091. https://doi.org/10.1039/D5CS00046G
  32. Jakes, J. E., & Stone, D. S. (2021). Best practices for quasistatic Berkovich nanoindentation of wood cell walls. Forests, 12(12), 1696. https://doi.org/10.3390/f12121696
  33. Ji, D., Wang, Y., Peng, J., Yuan, D., Li, Z., & Wu, H. (2024). Recent advances in depolymerization and high-value utilization of lignin: A review. Industrial & Engineering Chemistry Research, 63(46), 19916–19935. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.iecr.4c02617
  34. Jonoobi, M., Oladi, R., Davoudpour, Y., Oksman, K., Dufresne, A., Hamzeh, Y., & Davoodi, R. (2015). Different preparation methods and properties of nanostructured cellulose from various natural resources and residues: A review. Cellulose, 22(2), 935–969.https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-015-0551-0
  35. Junior, M. D. V., Guerrero, F., da Silva, F. M. A., Ramos, G. Q., Matos, R. S., Țălu, Ș., Trong, D. N., & da Fonseca Filho, H. D. (2024). Thermal decomposition and kinetic analysis of Amazonian woods: A comparative study of Goupia glabra and Manilkara huberi. Fire, 7(11), 390. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire7110390
  36. Karami, E., Pourtahmasi, K., & Shahverdi, M. (2010). Wood anatomical structure of Morus alba L. and Morus nigra L.native to Iran. Notulae Scientia Biologicae, 2(4), 129–132.https://doi.org/10.15835/nsb244985
  37. Kawamoto, H. (2017). Lignin pyrolysis reactions. Journal of Wood Science, 63(2), 117–132. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10086-016-1606-z
  38. Kaya, M., & Bülbül, R. (2025). Ak dut odununun (Morus alba L.) bazı fiziksel ve mekanik özelliklerinin belirlenmesi. Turkish Journal of Forestry, 26(4), 624–630. https://doi.org/10.18182/tjf.1711299
  39. Liang, J., Chen, J., Wu, S., Liu, C., & Lei, M. (2018). Comprehensive insights into cellulose structure evolution via multi-perspective analysis during a slow pyrolysis process. Sustainable Energy & Fuels, 2(8), 1855–1862. https://doi.org/10.1039/C8SE00166A
  40. Lionetto, F., Del Sole, R., Cannoletta, D., Vasapollo, G., & Maffezzoli, A. (2012). Monitoring wood degradation during weathering by cellulose crystallinity. Materials, 5(10), 1910–1922. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma5101910
  41. Lubwama, M., Yiga, V. A., Wanambwa, S., Bbosa, D., & Lubwama, H. N. (2023). Pyrolysis kinetics and combustion characteristics of local firewood species and charcoal produced by slow pyrolysis. Biomass Conversion and Biorefinery, 13(14), 12679–12688. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13399-021-02050-3
  42. Lusi, A., Hu, H., & Bai, X. (2020). Producing high yield of levoglucosan by pyrolyzing nonthermal plasma-pretreated cellulose. Green Chemistry, 22(6), 2036–2048. https://doi.org/10.1039/D0GC00255K
  43. Margellou, A. G., Psochia, E. A., Torofias, S. A., Pappa, C. P., & Triantafyllidis, K. S. (2024). Isolation of highly crystalline cellulose via combined pretreatment/fractionation and extraction procedures within a biorefinery concept. ACS Sustainable Resource Management, 1(7), 1432–1443. https://doi.org/10.1021/acssusresmgt.4c00093
  44. Mohan, D., Pittman, C. U., Jr., & Steele, P. H. (2006). Pyrolysis of wood/biomass for bio-oil: A critical review. Energy & Fuels, 20(3), 848–889. https://doi.org/10.1021/ef0502397
  45. Müller, U., Gindl, W., & Teischinger, A. (2003). Effects of cell anatomy on the plastic and elastic behaviour of different wood species loaded perpendicular to grain. IAWA Journal, 24(2), 117–128. https://doi.org/10.1163/22941932-90000325
  46. Müller-Hagedorn, M., Bockhorn, H., Krebs, L., & Müller, U. (2003). A comparative kinetic study on the pyrolysis of three different wood species. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 68, 231–249. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0165-2370(03)00065-2
  47. Nairn, J. A. (2006). Numerical simulations of transverse compression and densification in wood. Wood and Fiber Science, 38(4), 576–591.
  48. Najafian Ashrafi, M., Shaabani Asrami, H., Vosoughi Rudgar, Z., Ghorbanian Far, M., Heidari, A., Rastbod, E., Jafarzadeh, H., Salehi, M., Bari, E., & Ribera, J. (2021). Comparison of physical and mechanical properties of beech and walnut wood from Iran and Georgian beech. Forests, 12(6), 801. https://doi.org/10.3390/f12060801
  49. Najafian Ashrafi, M., Heidari, A., & Jafarzadeh, H. (2024). Studying the physical and mechanical properties of walnut (Juglans regia L.) wood from regions of Mashhad and Maku in Iran. Iranian Journal of Wood and Paper Science Research, 39(2), 111–120. https://doi.org/10.22092/IJWPR.2024.364995.1771
  50. Nishiyama, Y. (2009). Structure and properties of the cellulose microfibril. Journal of Wood Science, 55(4), 241–249. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10086-009-1029-1
  51. Ostafi, M. F., Dinulică, F., & Nicolescu, V. N. (2016). Physical properties and structural features of common walnut (Juglans regia L.) wood: A case-study. Die Bodenkultur: Journal of Land Management, Food and Environment, 67, 105–120. https://doi.org/10.1515/boku-2016-0010
  52. Padmanathan, A. M. D., Beck, S., Ansari, K. B., & Mushrif, S. H.(2024). Impact of lignin–carbohydrate complex (LCC)linkages on cellulose pyrolysis chemistry. EnergyAdvances, 3(2), 515–528.https://doi.org/10.1039/D3YA00427A
  53. Park, S., Baker, J. O., Himmel, M. E., Parilla, P. A., & Johnson, D. K. (2010). Cellulose crystallinity index: Measurement techniques and their impact on interpreting cellulase performance. Biotechnology for Biofuels, 3(1), 10. https://doi.org/10.1186/1754-6834-3-10
  54. Penttilä, P. A., Rautkari, L., Österberg, M., & Schweins, R. (2019). Small-angle scattering model for efficient characterization of wood nanostructure and moisture behaviour. Journal of Applied Crystallography, 52(2), 369–377. https://doi.org/10.1107/S1600576719002012
  55. Petroudy, S. D. (2017). Physical and mechanical properties of natural fibers. In S. Thomas (Ed.), Advanced high strength natural fibre composites in construction (pp. 59–83). Woodhead Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100411-1.00003-0
  56. Plomion, C., Leprovost, G., & Stokes, A. (2001). Wood formation in trees. Plant Physiology, 127(4), 1513–1523. https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.010816
  57. Poletto, M., Zattera, A. J., Forte, M. M., & Santana, R. M. (2012a). Thermal decomposition of wood: Influence of wood components and cellulose crystallite size. Bioresource Technology, 109, 148–153. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2011.11.122
  58. Poletto, M., Zattera, A. J., & Santana, R. M. (2012b). Structural differences between wood species: Evidence from chemical composition, FTIR spectroscopy, and thermogravimetric analysis. Journal of Applied Polymer Science, 126(S1), E337–E344. https://doi.org/10.1002/app.36991
  59. Pollegioni, P., Woeste, K., Chiocchini, F., Del Lungo, S., Ciolfi, M., Olimpieri, I., Tortolano, V., Clark, J., Hemery, G.E., Mapelli, S., & Malvolti, M. E. (2017). Rethinkingthe history of common walnut (Juglans regia L.) inEurope: Its origins and human interactions. PLOS ONE,12(3), e0172541.https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0172541
  60. Popescu, M. C., Popescu, C. M., Lisa, G., & Sakata, Y. (2011). Evaluation of morphological and chemical aspects of different wood species by spectroscopy and thermal methods. Journal of Molecular Structure, 988(1–3), 65–72.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molstruc.2010.12.004
  61. Prithivirajan, R., Balasundar, P., Shyamkumar, R., Al-Harbi, N. S., Kadaikunnan, S., Ramkumar, T., & Narayanasamy, P. (2019). Characterization of cellulosic fibers fromMorus alba L. stem. Journal of Natural Fibers, 16(4),503–511.https://doi.org/10.1080/15440478.2018.1426079
  62. Raza, M., Abu-Jdayil, B., Banat, F., & Al-Marzouqi, A. H. (2022). Isolation and characterization of cellulose nanocrystals from date palm waste. ACS Omega, 7(29), 25366–25379. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsomega.2c02333
  63. Ruelle, J., Hiroyuki, Y., & Thibaut, B. (2007). Growth stresses and cellulose structural parameters in tension and normal wood from three tropical rainforest angiosperm species. BioResources, 2(2), 235–251.
  64. Sampaio, J. d. S., Andrade, F. W. C., Moutinho, V. H. P., & Santos, M. R. P. (2024). Crystallinity and chemical structure of Amazon wood species in a log yard after natural degradation. BioResources, 19(1), 1136–1149. https://doi.org/10.15376/biores.19.1.1136-1149
  65. Segal, L., Creely, J. J., Martin, A. E., Jr., & Conrad, C. M. (1959). An empirical method for estimating the degree of crystallinity of native cellulose using the X-ray diffractometer. Textile Research Journal, 29(10), 786–794.https://doi.org/10.1177/004051755902901003
  66. Shah, U. N., Mir, J. I., Ahmed, N., Zaid, A., Jan, S., Fazili, K. M., & Wani, S. H. (2018). Bio-techniques for improvement of qualitative and quantitative traits in walnut (Juglans regia). Advances in Horticultural Science, 32(1), 113–136. https://doi.org/10.13128/ahs-21330
  67. Sharma, R. K., Wooten, J. B., Baliga, V. L., Lin, X., Chan, W. G., & Hajaligol, M. R. (2004). Characterization of chars from pyrolysis of lignin. Fuel, 83(11–12), 1469–1482. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2003.11.015
  68. Sharma, V., Kumari, A., Thakur, I. K., Chandel, M., Bhatia, A. K., & Kumar, A. (2021). Variations in morphometric characteristics of white mulberry (Morus alba L.). Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry, 10, 312–315.
  69. Sharma, U., Sankhyan, H. P., Rana, V. S., Kumari, A., Sankhyan, N., Kumar, R., Thakur, S., & Sharma, S. (2025). Variability in wood physico-chemical properties of Juglans regia L. from Indian Himalayan region. Wood Material Science & Engineering, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1080/17480272.2025.2522989
  70. Shen, D. K., Gu, S., & Bridgwater, A. V. (2010). Study on the pyrolytic behaviour of xylan-based hemicellulose using TG–FTIR and Py–GC–FTIR. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 87(2), 199–206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2009.12.001
  71. Smith, R. C., & Reza, M. T. (2026). Evaluation of integral and differential Coats–Redfern methods for pine pyrolysis kinetics. Fire, 9(3), 101. https://doi.org/10.3390/fire9030101
  72. Španić, N., Jambreković, V., & Klaric, M. (2018). Basic chemical composition of wood as a parameter in raw material selection for biocomposite production. Cellulose Chemistry and Technology, 52, 163–169.
  73. Sümbül, A. (2025). Characterization of genetic diversity of mulberry (Morus alba) genotypes growing naturally in Northeastern Türkiye (Kelkit Valley) using morphological, biochemical, and molecular markers. Horticulturae, 11(3), 298. https://doi.org/10.3390/horticulturae11030298
  74. Tabal, A., Barakat, A., & Aboulkas, A. (2021). Pyrolysis of Ficus nitida wood: Determination of kinetic and thermodynamic parameters. Fuel, 283, Article 119253. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2020.119253
  75. Tai, H. C., Chang, C. H., Cai, W., Lin, J. H., Huang, S. J., Lin, Q.Y., Yuan, E. C. Y., Li, S. L., Lin, Y. C. J., Chan, J. C. C., &Tsao, C. S. (2023). Wood cellulose microfibrils have a24-chain core–shell nanostructure in seed plants.Nature Plants, 9(7), 1154–1168.https://doi.org/10.1038/s41477-023-01430-z
  76. Tan, H., Ulusoy, H., & Peker, H. (2020). Antioxidant stone water (human/friendly environment) thermal (thermogravimetric-TGA) combustion properties in biohazard (insect/fungus) wood. Polímeros, 30(2), e2020014. https://doi.org/10.1590/0104-1428.00720
  77. Thygesen, A., Oddershede, J., Lilholt, H., Thomsen, A. B., & Ståhl, K. (2005). On the determination of crystallinity and cellulose content in plant fibres. Cellulose, 12(6), 563–576. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10570-005-9001-8
  78. Topaloğlu, E., & Ustaömer, D. (2020). Bazı meyve ağaçları gövde odunlarının fiziksel, mekanik ve yüzey özelliklerinin araştırılması. Duzce University Journal of Science and Technology, 8(1), 123–136. https://doi.org/10.29130/dubited.574229
  79. TSE. (1976). Türk Standartları Enstitüsü TS 2470: Odunda fiziksel ve mekanik deneyler için numune alma metotları ve genel özellikler. Ankara: TSE Yayınları.
  80. TSE. (2023). Türk Standartları Enstitüsü ISO 6507-1: Metalik malzemeler – Vickers sertlik deneyi – Bölüm 1: Deney yöntemi (ISO 6507-1:2023). Ankara: TSE Yayınları.
  81. Tze, W. T. Y., Wang, S., Rials, T. G., Pharr, G. M., & Kelley, S. S.(2007). Nanoindentation of wood cell walls:Continuous stiffness and hardness measurements.Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing,38(3), 945–953.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesa.2006.06.018
  82. Vargun, E., Baysal, E., Turkoglu, T., Yuksel, M., & Toker, H. (2019). Thermal degradation of oriental beech wood impregnated with different inorganic salts. Maderas. Ciencia y Tecnología, 21(2), 163–170. https://doi.org/10.4067/S0718-221X2019005000204
  83. Wang, S., Dai, G., Yang, H., & Luo, Z. (2017). Lignocellulosic biomass pyrolysis mechanism: A state-of-the-art review. Progress in Energy and Combustion Science, 62, 33–86. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pecs.2017.05.004
  84. Wang, J., Minami, E., & Kawamoto, H. (2020). Thermal reactivity of hemicellulose and cellulose in cedar and beech wood cell walls. Journal of Wood Science, 66(1), 41.https://doi.org/10.1186/s10086-020-01888-x
  85. Wang, Q., Feng, X., & Liu, X. (2023). Advances in historical wood consolidation and conservation materials. BioResources, 18(3), 6680. https://doi.org/10.15376/biores.18.3.
  86. Wang, Y., Eljamal, R., Nomura, T., Minami, E., & Kawamoto, H.(2025). Thermal reactivities of hemicellulose and cellulose and demineralization effects on their reactivities in cell walls of various softwood and hardwood species. Journal of Wood Science, 71(1), 39. https://doi.org/10.1186/s10086-025-02216-x
  87. Washusen, R., & Evans, R. (2001). The association between cellulose crystallite width and tension wood occurrence in Eucalyptus globulus. IAWA Journal, 22(3), 235–243.
  88. Werner, K., Pommer, L., & Broström, M. (2014). Thermal decomposition of hemicelluloses. Journal of Analytical and Applied Pyrolysis, 110, 130–137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaap.2014.08.013
  89. Yaman, B. (2008). Variation in quantitative vessel element features of Juglans regia wood in the western Black Sea region of Turkey. Agrociencia, 42(3), 357–365.
  90. Yang, H., Yan, R., Chen, H., Lee, D. H., & Zheng, C. (2007). Characteristics of hemicellulose, cellulose and lignin pyrolysis. Fuel, 86(12–13), 1781–1788. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2006.12.013
  91. Yılmaz, Y. (2017). Erbaa Şehri’nin iklim özellikleri. Marmara Coğrafya Dergisi, 36, 243–259. https://izlik.org/JA58SK25YT
  92. Yin, Y., Berglund, L., & Salmén, L. (2011). Effect of steam treatment on the properties of wood cell walls. Biomacromolecules, 12(1), 194–202. https://doi.org/10.1021/bm101144m
  93. Yu, S., Liu, Z., Xu, N., Chen, J., & Gao, Y. (2020). Influencing factors for determining the crystallinity of native cellulose by X-ray diffraction. Analytical Sciences, 36(8), 947–951.
  94. Zhang, X., Li, L., & Xu, F. (2022). Chemical characteristics of wood cell wall with an emphasis on ultrastructure: A mini-review. Forests, 13(3), 439. https://doi.org/10.3390/f13030439
  95. Zheng, Y., Wang, X., Chen, Y., Wagner, E., & Cosgrove, D. J. (2018). Xyloglucan in the primary cell wall: Assessment by FESEM, selective enzyme digestions and nanogold affinity tags. The Plant Journal, 93(2), 211–226. https://doi.org/10.1111/tpj.13809