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Journals / Journal of the Turkish Chemical Society Section A: Chemistry / 2026 / Volume: 2026 Issue: 2

Harnessing Citrus limon Leaves for Natural Dyeing: Extraction, Antimicrobial Potential, and Application on Cotton Using Traditional Mordants

Poro David Clark(Federal University of Petroleum)0000-0001-7794-9642
Pages
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Publication Date
2026-09-03
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AI Summary & Key Takeaways

AI Insight
⚡ TL;DR(Too Long; Didn't Read)

FeSO₄ post-mordanting provided the best overall fastness, whereas FeSO₄ pre-mordanting produced the highest colour strength, increasing K/S from 0.70 in unmordanted cotton to 1.30, accompanied by decreased lightness (L* from 73.0 to 58.5) and a hue shift from 74° to 80°.

📌 3 Key Takeaways

🎯
Objective & Hypothesis:Lemon leaves (Citrus limon L., Rutaceae) are an abundant agricultural by-product, yet their potential as a textile dye has received limited attention.
📊
Key Findings & Data:This study evaluated the dyeing performance of C. limon leaf extract on cotton and assessed its antibacterial and cytocompatibility properties.
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Conclusion & Impact:FeSO₄ post-mordanting provided the best overall fastness, whereas FeSO₄ pre-mordanting produced the highest colour strength, increasing K/S from 0.70 in unmordanted cotton to 1.30, accompanied by decreased lightness (L* from 73.0 to 58.5) and a hue shift from 74° to 80°.
🔬Design:Research Article
📍Scope:Comprehensive Sample
⚙️Variables:Citrus limon · Rutin · Cotton dyeing

Abstract

Lemon leaves (Citrus limon L., Rutaceae) are an abundant agricultural by-product, yet their potential as a textile dye has received limited attention. This study evaluated the dyeing performance of C. limon leaf extract on cotton and assessed its antibacterial and cytocompatibility properties. Among three solvent systems, 70:30 ethanol-water Soxhlet extraction at 60 °C for 2 h yielded the highest crude colourant (16% w/w). Sequential vacuum liquid chromatography, silica gel column chromatography, and preparative HPLC identified rutin (quercetin-3-O-rutinoside) as the principal colourant via FTIR, UV-Vis, and ¹H/¹³C NMR. UV-Vis maxima at 302 nm (Band II) and a shoulder at 370 nm (Band I) confirmed flavonol-type chromophores, while spectral shifts in mordanted samples suggested flavonol–metal complexation and co-pigmentation with minor phenolics. Cotton dyed at 100 °C with alum, SnCl₂, CuSO₄, and FeSO₄ exhibited generally acceptable fastness for natural dyes. Light fastness reached grades 4–4/5 (Blue Wool Scale), and wash and perspiration fastness ranged 3/4–5 (ISO grey scale). FeSO₄ post-mordanting provided the best overall fastness, whereas FeSO₄ pre-mordanting produced the highest colour strength, increasing K/S from 0.70 in unmordanted cotton to 1.30, accompanied by decreased lightness (L* from 73.0 to 58.5) and a hue shift from 74° to 80°. CuSO₄ gave the second-highest K/S (1.05), with alum and SnCl₂ yielding intermediate values (0.90–0.95). Dye uptake followed pseudo-second-order kinetics and fit the Freundlich isotherm. The extract also displayed concentration-dependent antibacterial activity and acceptable cytocompatibility, suggesting that rutin-rich extracts from C. limon leaves may be a promising natural cotton dye with added biofunctional properties.

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Cite This Article

Clark, P. D. (2026). Harnessing Citrus limon Leaves for Natural Dyeing: Extraction, Antimicrobial Potential, and Application on Cotton Using Traditional Mordants. Journal of the Turkish Chemical Society Section A: Chemistry, Volume: 2026 Issue: 2. https://doi.org/10.18596/jotcsa.1933278

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References (78)

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  42. Batool M, Khan U, Batool R, Afzaal R, Hayat K, Khan AA, et al. From waste to resource: Valorizing Citrus limon leaves through essential oil extraction and evaluation of its antimicrobial properties. Int J NeuroOncology Ther. 2025 Aug 2;1(1):74–83. Available from:.
  43. Ben Hsouna A, Ben Halima N, Smaoui S, Hamdi N. Citrus lemon essential oil: Chemical composition, antioxidant and antimicrobial activities with its preservative effect against Listeria monocytogenes inoculated in minced beef meat. Lipids Health Dis. 2017 Dec 3;16(1):146. Available from:.
  44. Xu Y, He P, He B, Chen Z. Bioactive flavonoids metabolites in citrus species: their potential health benefits and medical potentials. Front Pharmacol. 2025 Mar 3;16:1552171. Available from:.
  45. Farea Noor, Mehreen Ijaz. Extraction of natural dye using peels of citrus fruits for enhancing color fastness of fabrics. Proc Pakistan Acad Sci A Phys Comput Sci. 2024 Sep 23;61(3):247–55. Available from:.
  46. Dutta P, Mahjebin S, Sufian MA, Razaya Rabbi M, Chowdhury S, Imran IH. Impacts of natural and synthetic mordants on cotton knit fabric dyed with natural dye from onion skin in perspective of eco-friendly textile process. Mater Today Proc. 2021;47:2633–40. Available from:.
  47. Islam T, Khan AM, Karim MR, Hossain S, Jalil MA. Assessing the dyeing efficacy and environmental impact of cotton fabric dyed with sawmill bio‐waste extracts and metal salts. SPE Polym. 2024 Jul 6;5(3):444–56. Available from:.
  48. Afonso TB, Bonifácio-Lopes T, Costa EM, Pintado ME. Phenolic compounds from by-products for functional textiles. Materials. 2023 Nov 20;16(22):7248. Available from:.
  49. Mosmann T. Rapid colorimetric assay for cellular growth and survival: Application to proliferation and cytotoxicity assays. J Immunol Methods. 1983 Dec;65(1–2):55–63. Available from:.
  50. Kayabaşi N, Etikan S. Subjective and objective evaluation of colors obtained from some citrus (Rutaceae) leaves. Tek Bilim Derg. 2015 Jan 28;5(1):20–8. Available from:.
  51. Clark P, Otutu J, Asiagwu AK, Ndukwe G. Exploring the potential of dacryodes edulis leaf extract as natural colourant on polyamide fabrics: Extraction, characterization and application. Substantia. 2024 Jun 20;8(2):103–18. Available from:.
  52. Otutu JO, Clark PD, Osharode ME, Otutu EC, Ndukwe GI. Extraction, characterization, and application of a polyphenolic compound as a natural dye for polyamide fabrics. J Chem Lett. 2025 Feb 1;6(2):68–78. Available from:.
  53. Chairat M, Bremner JB, Samosorn S, Sajomsang W, Chongkraijak W, Saisara A. Effects of additives on the dyeing of cotton yarn with the aqueous extract of Combretum latifolium Blume stems. Color Technol. 2015 Aug 8;131(4):310–5. Available from:.
  54. Velmurugan P, TamilSelvi A, Lakshmanaperumalsamy P, Park J, Oh B. The use of cochineal and Monascus purpureus as dyes for cotton fabric. Color Technol. 2013 Aug 29;129(4):246–51. Available from:.
  55. Al-Ghouti MA, Da’ana DA. Guidelines for the use and interpretation of adsorption isotherm models: A review. J Hazard Mater. 2020 Jul 5;393:122383. Available from:.
  56. Arora A, Gupta D, Rastogi D, Gulrajani ML. Kinetics and thermodynamics of dye extracted from Arnebia nobilis Rech.f. on wool. Indian J Fibre Text Res. 2012;37:178–82. Available from:.
  57. Wolela AD. Equilibrium of dyeing: A review. Adv Res Text Eng. 2022 Aug 11;7(2):1073. Available from:.
  58. Brglez Mojzer E, Knez Hrnčič M, Škerget M, Knez Ž, Bren U. Polyphenols: Extraction methods, antioxidative action, bioavailability and anticarcinogenic effects. Molecules. 2016 Jul 11;21(7):901. Available from:.
  59. Lee JE, Jayakody J, Kim JI, Jeong JW, Choi KM, Kim TS, et al. The influence of solvent choice on the extraction of bioactive compounds from asteraceae: A comparative review. Foods. 2024 Oct 2;13(19):3151. Available from:.
  60. Akinmoladun AC, Falaiye OE, Ojo OB, Adeoti A, Amoo ZA, Olaleye MT. Effect of extraction technique, solvent polarity, and plant matrix on the antioxidant properties of Chrysophyllum albidum G. Don (African star apple). Bull Natl Res Cent. 2022 Dec 21;46(1):40. Available from:.
  61. Clark PD, Otutu JO, Asiagwu KA, Ndukwe GI, Otutu EC, Idibie CA. Isolation and characterization of natural dyes from Persea americana leaves and their application on polyamide fabrics. Ovidius Univ Ann Chem. 2025 Jul 1;36(2):91–102. Available from:.
  62. Liang TZ, Lin YX, Jia SH, Jiao JY, Zhang ZX, Zhu Z, et al. Extraction and characterization of the flavonoid rutin from traditional chinese medicine Flos sophorae immaturus. J Vis Exp. 2025 Oct 31;224. Available from:.
  63. Walencik PK, Choińska R, Gołębiewska E, Kalinowska M. Metal–flavonoid interactions—from simple complexes to advanced systems. Molecules. 2024 May 30;29(11):2573. Available from:.
  64. Romero A, González I, Galán E. Trace elements absorption by citrus in a heavily polluted mining site. J Geochemical Explor. 2012 Feb 1;113:76–85. Available from:.
  65. Erşan S, Müller M, Reuter L, Carle R, Müller-Maatsch J. Co-pigmentation of strawberry anthocyanins with phenolic compounds from rooibos. Food Chem Mol Sci. 2022 Jul 30;4:100097. Available from:.
  66. Clark PD, Ekpekpo LD. Maceration-based extraction and spectroscopic characterisation of sorghum bicolor leaves extract as a natural dye on cotton fabric. J Chem Soc Niger. 2025 Aug 15;50(4):775–86. Available from:.
  67. Kaliko. List of natural mordants. [cited 2026 Apr 15]. Available from:.
  68. Yusuf M, Shabbir M, Mohammad F. Natural colorants: Historical, processing and sustainable prospects. Nat Products Bioprospect. 2017 Feb 16;7(1):123–45. Available from:.
  69. Jabar JM, Adedayo TE, Odusote YA. Green, eco-friendly and sustainable alternative in dyeing cotton fabric using aqueous extract Mucuna slonaei F dye: Effects of metal salts pre-mordanting on color strength and fastness properties. Curr Res Green Sustain Chem. 2021 Jan 1;4:100151. Available from:.
  70. Benjelloun M, Miyah Y, Akdemir Evrendilek G, Zerrouq F, Lairini S. Recent advances in adsorption kinetic models: Their application to dye types. Arab J Chem. 2021 Apr 1;14(4):103031. Available from:.
  71. Sevim F, Laçin Ö, Demir F, Erkiliç ÖF. Adsorption capacity, isotherm, kinetics, and thermodynamics examinations on the removal of a textile azo dye by local natural adsorbent. Glob Challenges. 2025 May 10;9(5):2500024. Available from:.
  72. Wang L, Zhang J, Zhao R, Li C, Li Y, Zhang C. Adsorption of basic dyes on activated carbon prepared from Polygonum orientale Linn: Equilibrium, kinetic and thermodynamic studies. Desalination. 2010 May 15;254(1–3):68–74. Available from:.
  73. Singh R, Jain A, Panwar S, Gupta D, Khare SK. Antimicrobial activity of some natural dyes. Dye Pigment. 2005 Aug 1;66(2):99–102. Available from:.
  74. Mao D, Xu H. The antimicrobial potential of plant-based natural dyes for textile dyeing: A systematic review using prisma. AUTEX Res J. 2024 Dec 3;24(1):20240016. Available from:.
  75. Huan Y, Kong Q, Mou H, Yi H. Antimicrobial peptides: Classification, design, application and research progress in multiple fields. Front Microbiol. 2020 Oct 16;11:582779. Available from:.
  76. Lin Q, Lim JYC, Xue K, Yew PYM, Owh C, Chee PL, et al. Sanitizing agents for virus inactivation and disinfection. VIEW. 2020 Jun 24;1(2):e16. Available from:.
  77. Gruber S, Nickel A. Toxic or not toxic? The specifications of the standard ISO 10993-5 are not explicit enough to yield comparable results in the cytotoxicity assessment of an identical medical device. Front Med Technol. 2023 Jun 14;5:1195529. Available from:.
  78. Silva EZM, Sehr A, Grummt T, Oliveira DP de, Leme DM. The evaluation of reactive textile dyes regarding their potential to cause organ-specific cyto- and geno-toxicity. Ecotoxicol Environ Contam. 2022 Aug 10;17(1):60–6. Available from:.