SavedAdd your journal

Journals / International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies and Innovative Technologies / 2026 / Cilt: 10 Sayı: 1

Modular e-Torque System for Small Engines via Triple Energy Harvesting: Thermoelectric, Braking, and Airflow Integration

Modüler e-Tork Sistemi için Üçlü Enerji Toplama Yoluyla Küçük Motorlarda Termoelektrik, Fren ve Hava Akışı Entegrasyonu

Omar Nuaimi(ISTANBUL GELISIM UNIVERSITY, İSTANBUL GELİŞİM VOCATIONAL SCHOOL, DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICITY AND ENERGY, ELECTRICITY PR. (PAID))0009-0004-2210-0931
Hasan Ali Abdulwahid(KTO KARATAY ÜNİVERSİTESİ, MÜHENDİSLİK FAKÜLTESİ)0009-0008-5365-9665
Hanaa Saedi(KTO KARATAY ÜNİVERSİTESİ, MÜHENDİSLİK FAKÜLTESİ)0009-0009-7827-4208
Zeyad Ahmed(ISTANBUL GELISIM UNIVERSITY, İSTANBUL GELİŞİM VOCATIONAL SCHOOL, DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICITY AND ENERGY, ELECTRICITY PR. (PAID))0009-0006-6966-1247
Shuaib Jasim(KTO KARATAY ÜNİVERSİTESİ, MÜHENDİSLİK FAKÜLTESİ)0009-0000-5574-7302
Pages
139–148
Publication Date
2026-08-31
🏛️Bibliographic metadata and full text access for this article are provided via DergiPark.
DergiPark Record ↗
✨

AI Summary & Key Takeaways

AI Insight
⚡ TL;DR(Too Long; Didn't Read)

Future work will focus on simulation validation, prototype development, and advanced control optimization.

📌 3 Key Takeaways

🎯
Objective & Hypothesis:This paper proposes a modular e-Torque architecture designed for small-displacement internal combustion engines (1.5 L) to provide hybrid-like torque assistance with minimal cost and system complexity.
📊
Key Findings & Data:The proposed system integrates three complementary energy-harvesting sources: regenerative braking, thermoelectric generators (TEGs), and an air-driven turbine.
💡
Conclusion & Impact:Future work will focus on simulation validation, prototype development, and advanced control optimization.
🔬Design:Modeling & Simulation
📍Scope:Comprehensive Sample
⚙️Variables:Modüler e-Tork sistemi · Küçük hacimli motorlar · Rejeneratif frenleme

Abstract

This paper proposes a modular e-Torque architecture designed for small-displacement internal combustion engines (1.5 L) to provide hybrid-like torque assistance with minimal cost and system complexity. The proposed system integrates three complementary energy-harvesting sources: regenerative braking, thermoelectric generators (TEGs), and an air-driven turbine. The recovered energy is stored in a centralized battery and managed through a dedicated power-management framework connected to a Motor Generator Unit (MGU) that supplies torque support during acceleration and load-demand conditions. A hierarchical control strategy prioritizes regenerative braking due to its higher instantaneous energy recovery, followed by continuous thermoelectric generation, while the air-driven turbine operates as an auxiliary source to maintain battery readiness. Analytical modeling under typical urban driving conditions indicates that the integrated system can recover approximately 65 W of electrical power (TEG ≈ 30 W, regenerative ≈ 20 W, turbine ≈ 15 W). This recovered energy can assist the MGU in providing torque support while reducing alternator load and mechanical braking demand. The proposed architecture demonstrates a compact and scalable solution for enhancing energy efficiency in small-engine vehicles by utilizing otherwise wasted thermal and aerodynamic energy. Future work will focus on simulation validation, prototype development, and advanced control optimization.

Özet

Bu çalışma, küçük hacimli içten yanmalı motorlar (1,5 L) için düşük kütle, maliyet ve karmaşıklıkla hibrit benzeri tork desteği sağlayan modüler bir e-Tork mimarisi sunmaktadır. Sistem; rejeneratif frenleme, termoelektrik jeneratörler (TEG’ler) ve hava tahrikli bir türbin olmak üzere üç enerji hasadı kaynağını merkezi bir enerji depolama ve güç yönetimi yapısına entegre etmektedir. Kayış tahrikli bir Motor-Jeneratör Ünitesi (MGU), depolanan enerjiyi ani hızlanma ve yokuş tırmanma sırasında hedefli destek sağlamak için kullanmaktadır. Hiyerarşik bir kontrolör, öncelikle yüksek verimli rejeneratif frenlemeye, ardından sürekli TEG çıkışına öncelik vermekte ve batarya hazır durumunu korumak amacıyla türbini koşullu olarak devreye almaktadır. Özel dönüştürücüler gerilimi düzenlemekte, uygun durumlarda maksimum güç noktası takibini yapmakta ve merkezi bir DC bara üzerinde çift yönlü enerji akışını mümkün kılmaktadır. Kentsel sürüş çevrimleri için yapılan analitik modelleme, ortalama yaklaşık 65 W’lık birleşik bir enerji geri kazanımına işaret etmektedir (TEG ≈ 30 W, rejeneratif frenleme ≈ 20 W, türbin ≈ 15 W). Bu durum, kompakt bir MGU aracılığıyla tork artışlarını desteklerken alternatör yükünü ve mekanik fren aşınmasını azaltmaktadır. Bulanık kurallar veya eşik değerler ile uygulanan üst seviye kontrol mantığı, anlık güç talebi, şarj durumu ve termal sınırlar doğrultusunda enerji kaynaklarını koordine etmektedir. Bu yaklaşım, normalde kaybedilecek olan ısı ve dinamik basınç enerjisinin geri kazanılmasıyla araç üzerindeki enerji bütçesini genişletmekte ve büyük ölçekli motor yeniden yapılandırmalarına gerek kalmadan sürüş kabiliyetini ve yakıt ekonomisini iyileştirmektedir. Çalışma; küçük motor platformları için bileşen rolleri, kontrol öncelikleri ve uygulanabilirlik sınırlarını ortaya koymakta; etkin TEG termal arayüzleri, aerodinamik türbin tasarımı ve DC bara üzerindeki koruyucu işlevler gibi entegrasyon gereksinimlerine dikkat çekmektedir. Genel olarak önerilen e-Tork sistemi, maliyet hassasiyeti yüksek araçlarda hibrit benzeri faydalara ulaşmak için kompakt ve bütünleşik bir yol sunmaktadır. Gelecek çalışmalar, kavramın simülasyon, donanım prototipleme ve kontrol iyileştirmeleri yoluyla doğrulanmasını amaçlamaktadır.

🔖

Cite This Article

Nuaimi, O., Abdulwahid, H. A., Saedi, H., Ahmed, Z., Jasim, S. (2026). Modular e-Torque System for Small Engines via Triple Energy Harvesting: Thermoelectric, Braking, and Airflow Integration. International Journal of Multidisciplinary Studies and Innovative Technologies, Cilt: 10 Sayı: 1, 139–148. https://doi.org/10.36287/ijmsit.10.1.15

📄 Full Text PDF Viewer

📄

PDF görüntüleyici hazırlanıyor...

References (44)

  1. Asaduzzaman, M., Ali, M. H., Pratik, N. A., & Lubaba, N. (2023). Exhaust heat harvesting of an automotive engine using thermoelectric generation technology. Energy Conversion and Management: X, 19, 100398. [link]
  2. harma, A., Kumar, R., & Singh, S. (2020). Research on regenerative braking systems: A review. International Journal of Mechanical Engineering and Technology, 11(9), 1–10.[link]
  3. Callahan, R. T. (2012). Ram air driven turbine generator battery charging system (U.S. Patent No. US8098040B1). United States Patent and Trademark Office. [link]
  4. Pundir, A., & Saini, A. (2021, May). Mild hybrid technology in automotive: A review.[link]
  5. Boretti, A. (2017). F1 style MGU-H applied to the turbocharger of a gasoline hybrid electric passenger car.[link]
  6. Yahya, M. Y., Mamat, R., Najafi, G., & Sopian, K. (2024). A review of thermoelectric generators in automobile waste heat recovery systems. Energies, 17(5), 1016.[link]
  7. Mishra, G., & Sharma, S. K. (n.d.). A review of automotive thermoelectric generator. Unpublished manuscript, D.MAT, Raipur, Chhattisgarh, India.[link]
  8. E. M. Szumska, "Regenerative Braking Systems in Electric Vehicles: A Comprehensive Review of Design, Control Strategies, and Efficiency Challenges," Energies, vol. 18, no. 10, p. 2422, May 2025.[link]
  9. Zhang, Z., Rex, A., Zhou, J., Zhang, X., Huang, G., Zhang, J., & Zhang, T. (2023). Dynamic simulation model and experimental validation of one passive fuel cell–battery hybrid powertrain for an electric light scooter. Energies, 16(18), 6621[link]
  10. Biswas, J., & Das, S. (2024). Investigating the effectiveness of a mobile wind turbine generating electricity from vehicle air movement. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 22(01), 210–218.[link]
  11. R. Merienne, J. Lynn, E. McSweeney, and S. M. O'Shaughnessy, "Thermal cycling of thermoelectric generators: The effect of heating rate," Applied Energy, vol. 237, pp. 671–681, Mar. 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.01.041.[link]
  12. F. Hao, T. Xing, and P. Qiu, "Enhanced Thermoelectric Performance in n-Type Bi₂Te₃-Based Alloys via Suppressing Intrinsic Excitation," ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, vol. 10, no. 25, pp. –, Jun. 2018, doi: 10.1021/acsami. 8b06533.[link]
  13. P. Saini and J. D. Osorio, "Review on phase change materials and thermoelectric generators for ocean thermal gradient applications," Applied Energy, vol. 253, pp. 113595, Nov. 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.apenergy.2019.113595.[link]
  14. C. Nemes and F. Munteanu, "Operational parameters evaluation for optimal wind energy systems development," UPB Scientific Bulletin, Series C: Electrical Engineering, vol. 74, no. 1, pp. –, Jan. 2012.[link]
  15. Liu, C., and Zhang, K., “Research on regenerative braking energy recovery strategy of electric vehicle,” Journal of Physics: Conference Series, vol. 2030, no. 1, p. 012003, Sep. 2021, doi: 10.1088/1742-6596/2030/1/012003.[link]
  16. F. Leach, G. Kalghatgi, R. Stone, and P. Miles, "The scope for improving the efficiency and environmental impact of internal combustion engines," Transportation Engineering, vol. 1, p. 100005, 2020. doi: 10.1016/j.treng.2020.100005.[link]
  17. M. A. Hannan, F. A. Azidin, and M. Azah, "Hybrid electric vehicles and their challenges: A review," Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 29, pp. 135–150, Jan. 2014. doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2013.08.097.[link]
  18. S. Jeon, G. S. Lee, D.-W. Kang, S. Bae, and others, "Belt-Driven Integrated Starter and Generator Using Planetary Gears for Micro Hybrid Electric Vehicles," IEEE Access, vol. PP, no. 99, pp. 1–1, Apr. 2021, doi: 10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3072054.[link]
  19. S. Kumar, S. D. Heister, X. Xu, G. P. Meisner, and others, "Thermoelectric Generators for Automotive Waste Heat Recovery Systems Part II: Parametric Evaluation and Topological Studies," Journal of Electronic Materials, vol. 42, no. 6, pp. –, Jun. 2013. doi: 10.1007/s11664-013-2472-8.[link]
  20. Z. A. Khan, H. Sherazi, and M. Ali, "Designing a Wind Energy Harvester for Connected Vehicles in Green Cities," Energies, vol. 14, no. 17, p. 5408, Aug. 2021. doi: 10.3390/en14175408.[link]
  21. S. M. R. Rostami and Z. Al-Shibaany, "Intelligent Energy Management for Full-Active Hybrid Energy Storage Systems in Electric Vehicles Using Teaching–Learning-Based Optimisation in Fuzzy Logic Algorithms," IEEE Access, vol. PP, no. 99, pp. 1–1, Jan. 2024, doi: 10.1109/ACCESS.2024.3399111.[link]
  22. H. Mamur, Ö. F. Dilmaç, J. Begum, and M. R. A. Bhuiyan, "Thermoelectric generators act as renewable energy sources," Cleaner Materials, vol. 2, p. 100030, Dec. 2021, doi: 10.1016/j.clema.2021.100030.[link]
  23. M. Darwiche, J. Faraj, K. Chahine, A. Shaito, S. Awad, M. Mortazavi, and M. Khaled, "A comprehensive recent review and practical insights on the usage of advanced materials and enhancement strategies in thermoelectric applications," Results in Engineering, p. 103354, 2024, doi: 10.1016/j.rineng.2024.103354.[link]
  24. Zhuk, A. Z., K. Denschikov, V. Fortov, A. Sheindlin, and W. Wilczyński, “Hybrid energy storage system based on supercapacitors and Li-ion batteries,” Journal of Applied Electrochemistry, vol. 44, no. 4, pp. 543–550, Apr. 2014, doi: 10.1007/s10800-013-0639-x.[link]
  25. Bhagwan, K. A., Manthati, U. B., and Alsaif, F., “A model predictive control based MPPT technique for novel DC–DC converter and voltage regulation in DC microgrid,” Frontiers in Energy Research, vol. 12, Art. no. 1471499, Aug. 2024, doi: 10.3389/fenrg. 2024.1471499.[link]
  26. Muthukumar, P., Venkateshkumar, M., and Chin, C. S., “A Comparative Study of Cutting-Edge Bi-Directional Power Converters and Intelligent Control Methodologies for Advanced Electric Mobility,” IEEE Access, vol. 12, pp. 28710–28752, 2024, doi: 10.1109/ACCESS.2024.3360267.[link]
  27. Alfred, N., Guntreddi, V., Shuaibu, A. N., and Bakare, M. S., “A fuzzy logic based energy management model for solar PV-wind standalone with battery storage system,” Scientific Reports, vol. 15, Art. no. 24660, Jul. 2025, doi: 10.1038/s41598-025-09662-z.[link]
  28. Magsumbol, J.-A. V., Bandala, A. A., Culaba, A. B., Sybingco, E., Vicerra, R. R. P., Naguib, R., and Dadios, E. P., “Intelligent Battery Management in a Hybrid Photovoltaic Using Fuzzy Logic System,” Technologies, vol. 13, no. 6, Art. no. 214, 2025, doi: 10.3390/technologies13060214. [link ]
  29. Ariche, S., Boulghasoul, Z., El Ouardi, A., Elbacha, A., Tajer, A., and Espié, S., “Enhancing energy management in battery electric vehicles: A novel approach based on fuzzy Q-learning controller,” Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal, vol. 67, art. 102070, 2025, doi: 10.1016/j.jestch.2025.102070.[link].
  30. Cardoso, D. S., Fael, P. O., and Espírito-Santo, A., “A review of micro and mild hybrid systems,” Energy Reports, vol. 6, pp. 385–390, 2020, doi: 10.1016/j.egyr.2019.08.077.[link]
  31. O. Sundström, L. Guzzella, and P. Soltic, “Torque-Assist Hybrid Electric Powertrain Sizing: From Optimal Control Towards a Sizing Law,” IEEE Transactions on Control Systems Technology, vol. 18, no. 4, pp. 837–849, 2010, doi: 10.1109/TCST.2009.2030173.[link]
  32. E. M. Szumska and R. Jurecki, “The Analysis of Energy Recovered during the Braking of an Electric Vehicle in Different Driving Conditions,” Energies, vol. 15, no. 24, Art. no. 9369, 2022, doi: 10.3390/en15249369.[link]
  33. R. Aridi, J. Faraj, S. Ali, T. Lemenand, and M. Khaled, “Thermoelectric Power Generators: State-of-the-Art, Heat Recovery Method, and Challenges,” Electricity, vol. 2, no. 3, pp. 359–386, 2021, doi: 10.3390/electricity2030022.[link]
  34. S. Twaha, J. Zhu, Y. Yan, B. Li, and K. Huang, “Performance analysis of thermoelectric generator using DC–DC converter with incremental conductance based maximum power point tracking,” Energy for Sustainable Development, vol. 37, pp. 86–98, Apr. 2017, doi: 10.1016/j.esd.2017.01.003.[link]
  35. R. Bao, V. Avila, and J. Baxter, “Effect of 48 V Mild Hybrid System Layout on Powertrain System Efficiency and Its Potential of Fuel Economy Improvement,” SAE Technical Paper, no. 2017-01-1175, WCX™ 17: SAE World Congress Experience, Mar. 2017, doi:10.4271/2017-01-1175.[link]
  36. M. Eltaweel and M. R. Herfatmanesh, “Enhancing vehicular performance with flywheel energy storage systems: Emerging technologies and applications,” Journal of Energy Storage, vol. 103, Art. no. 114386, 2024, doi:10.1016/j.est.2024.114386.[link].
  37. M. İnci, Ö. Çelik, A. Lashab, K. Ç. Bayındır, J. C. Vasquez, and J. M. Guerrero, “Power System Integration of Electric Vehicles: A Review on Impacts and Contributions to the Smart Grid,” Energies, vol. 14, no. 10, p. 2987, 2021, doi:10.3390/en14102987.[link]
  38. S. P. Richard and S. Titus, “Efficient energy management using Red Tailed Hawk optimized ANN for PV, battery & super capacitor driven electric vehicle,” Journal of Energy Storage, vol. 115, Art. no. 116126, 2025, doi:10.1016/j.est.2025.116126.[link].
  39. M. A. Aazmi and M. I. Fahmi, “Direct torque control of induction motor with different energy storage for electrical vehicle (EV) application,” in Proc. Int. Conf. Man Machine Systems (ICoMMS), J. Phys.: Conf. Ser., vol. 2107, no. 1, Art. no. 012052, 2021, doi:10.1088/1742-6596/2107/1/012052.[link].
  40. X. Fu, Z. Fan, S. Jiang, and A. Fly, “Durability Oriented Fuel Cell Electric Vehicle Energy Management Strategies Based on Vehicle Drive Cycles,” Energies, vol. 17, no. 22, p. 5721, Nov. 2024, doi:10.3390/en17225721.[linlk].
  41. J. Liu, C. Hu, Q. Qiu, and J. Kang, “Comparative Evaluation of Energy Recovery Systems for Enhanced Automotive Overall Efficiency,” Applied and Computational Engineering, vol. 188, no. 1, pp. 83–107, Oct. 2025, doi:10.54254/2755-2721/2026.KA27455.[link].
  42. R. A. Salas Puente, S. Marzal, R. González-Medina, and E. Figueres, “Power Management of the DC Bus Connected Converters in a Hybrid AC/DC Microgrid Tied to the Main Grid,” Energies, vol. 11, no. 4, p. 794, Mar. 2018, doi:10.3390/en11040794.[link].
  43. M. Bai, W. Yang, R. Zhang, M. Kosuda, P. Korba, and M. Hovanec, “Fuzzy-based optimal energy management strategy of series hybrid-electric propulsion system for UAVs,” Journal of Energy Storage, vol. 72, Art. no. 107712, 2023, doi:10.1016/j.est.2023.107712.[link].
  44. F. Hao, T. Xing, and P. Qiu, "Enhanced Thermoelectric Performance in n-Type Bi₂Te₃-Based Alloys via Suppressing Intrinsic Excitation," ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, vol. 10, no. 25, pp. –, Jun. 2018, doi: 10.1021/acsami. 8b06533.[link]