SavedAdd your journal

Journals / International Journal of Assessment Tools in Education / 2026 / Volume: 13 Issue: 1

Determining factors influencing middle school teachers in demonstrating test score inflation

Deniz Gökçe Güngör(ANKARA ÜNİVERSİTESİ)0000-0002-3783-9243
Ömer Kutlu(ANKARA ÜNİVERSİTESİ)0000-0003-4364-5629
Pages
—
Publication Date
2026-01-02
🏛️Bibliographic metadata and full text access for this article are provided via DergiPark.
DergiPark Record ↗
✨

AI Summary & Key Takeaways

AI Insight
⚡ TL;DR(Too Long; Didn't Read)

Future research should validate the scale across contexts and employ longitudinal or mixed-method designs to explore how institutional dynamics and professional norms shape teachers’ assessment integrity.

📌 3 Key Takeaways

🎯
Objective & Hypothesis:This study examines the determinants of test score inflation among middle school teachers within Türkiye’s exam-driven education system.
📊
Key Findings & Data:Test score inflation -defined as increasing students’ scores beyond actual performance due to internal or external pressures- poses challenges for fairness, validity, and instructional integrity.
💡
Conclusion & Impact:Future research should validate the scale across contexts and employ longitudinal or mixed-method designs to explore how institutional dynamics and professional norms shape teachers’ assessment integrity.
🔬Design:Modeling & Simulation
📍Scope:2012 Verileri
⚙️Variables:Test score inflation · Student achievement · High-stake tests

Abstract

This study examines the determinants of test score inflation among middle school teachers within Türkiye’s exam-driven education system. Test score inflation -defined as increasing students’ scores beyond actual performance due to internal or external pressures- poses challenges for fairness, validity, and instructional integrity. To investigate its underlying factors, the researchers developed and validated the Test Score Inflation Scale following DeVellis’s (2012) framework. The 20-item, three-factor instrument (Avoidance of Pressure, Student Support, Fairness) demonstrated strong psychometric properties (α = .81–.89; ω = .97; KMO = .855). Data were collected from 507 teachers of Turkish, Mathematics, Science, and Social Studies across public and private schools. Multivariate analyses (MANOVA, multiple regression) revealed significant effects of gender and school type: female teachers and those in private institutions exhibited higher inflation tendencies across all subscales. Conversely, seniority, postgraduate education, managerial role, and subject area showed no significant influence. Regression models indicated that individual (gender, school type) and contextual (physical and sociological characteristics of schools) factors jointly explained 38% of total variance (R² = .25-.31 across subscales). Findings suggest that inflation behaviors may reflect adaptive responses to institutional pressures rather than deliberate misconduct. The results underscore the need for policies that promote process-oriented assessment, ethical grading dialogue among teachers, and improved resource conditions that reduce pressure to inflate scores. Future research should validate the scale across contexts and employ longitudinal or mixed-method designs to explore how institutional dynamics and professional norms shape teachers’ assessment integrity.

Özet

This study examines the determinants of test score inflation among middle school teachers within Türkiye’s exam-driven education system. Test score inflation -defined as increasing students’ scores beyond actual performance due to internal or external pressures- poses challenges for fairness, validity, and instructional integrity. To investigate its underlying factors, the researchers developed and validated the Test Score Inflation Scale following DeVellis’s (2012) framework. The 20-item, three-factor instrument (Avoidance of Pressure, Student Support, Fairness) demonstrated strong psychometric properties (α = .81–.89; ω = .97; KMO = .855). Data were collected from 507 teachers of Turkish, Mathematics, Science, and Social Studies across public and private schools. Multivariate analyses (MANOVA, multiple regression) revealed significant effects of gender and school type: female teachers and those in private institutions exhibited higher inflation tendencies across all subscales. Conversely, seniority, postgraduate education, managerial role, and subject area showed no significant influence. Regression models indicated that individual (gender, school type) and contextual (physical and sociological characteristics of schools) factors jointly explained 38% of total variance (R² = .25-.31 across subscales). Findings suggest that inflation behaviors may reflect adaptive responses to institutional pressures rather than deliberate misconduct. The results underscore the need for policies that promote process-oriented assessment, ethical grading dialogue among teachers, and improved resource conditions that reduce pressure to inflate scores. Future research should validate the scale across contexts and employ longitudinal or mixed-method designs to explore how institutional dynamics and professional norms shape teachers’ assessment integrity.

🔖

Cite This Article

Güngör, D. G., Kutlu, Ö. (2026). Determining factors influencing middle school teachers in demonstrating test score inflation. International Journal of Assessment Tools in Education, Volume: 13 Issue: 1. https://doi.org/10.21449/ijate.1580050

📄 Full Text PDF Viewer

📄

PDF görüntüleyici hazırlanıyor...

References (69)

  1. Alderson, J.C., & Hamp‐Lyons, L. (1996). TOEFL preparation courses: a study of washback. Language Testing, 13(3), 280-297. https://doi.org/10.1177/026553229601300304
  2. Au, W. (2011). Teaching under the new Taylorism: high‐stakes testing and the standardization of the 21st century curriculum. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 43(1), 25 45. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220272.2010.521261
  3. Barksdale, M.A., & Thomas, K.F. (2000). What’s at stake in High-Stakes testing. Journal of Teacher Education, 51(5), 384-397. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487100051005006
  4. Bennett, S.K. (1982). Student perceptions of and expectations for male and female instructors: Evidence relating to the question of gender bias in teaching evaluation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 74(2), 170-179. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.74.2.170
  5. Berliner, D.C. (2011). Rational responses to high stakes testing: the case of curriculum narrowing and the harm that follows. Cambridge Journal of Education, 41(3), 287 302. https://doi.org/10.1080/0305764x.2011.607151
  6. Bangert-Drowns, R.L., Kulik, C.C., Kulik, J.A., & Morgan, M. (1991). The instructional effect of feedback in Test Like events. Review of Educational Research, 61(2), 213 238. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543061002213
  7. Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (1998). Assessment and classroom learning. Assessment in Education Principles Policy and Practice, 5(1), 7-74. https://doi.org/10.1080/0969595980050102
  8. Blatchford, P., Bassett, P., Goldstein, H., & Martin, C. (2003). Are class size differences related to pupils’ educational progress and classroom processes? Findings from the institute of education class size study of children aged 5 7 years. British Educational Research Journal, 29(5), 709 730. https://doi.org/10.1080/0141192032000133668
  9. Caruth, D.L., & Caruth, G.D. (2013). Grade inflation: An issue for higher education? Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 14(1), 102 110. https://dergipark.org.tr/tr/pub/tojde/issue/16895/176017
  10. Chan, W., Li, H., & Suen, W. (2007). A signaling theory of grade inflation. International Economic Review, 48(3), 1065-1090. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2354.2007.00454.x
  11. Cizek, G.J., Robert, R., & Fitzgerald, S. (1995, April 18-22). Further investigation of teachers’ assessment practices [Paper presentation]. The Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, San Francisco, CA, United States.
  12. Couch, J.F., Shughart, W.F., & Williams, A.L. (1993). Private school enrollment and public school performance. Public Choice, 76(4), 301-312. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf01053301
  13. Creswell, J.W. (2012). Educational research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research. Pearson Education.
  14. Darling Hammond, L., & Wise, A.E. (1985). Beyond standardization: state standards and school improvement. Elementary School Journal, 85(3), 315-336. https://doi.org/10.1086/461408
  15. Deci, E.L., Koestner, R., & Ryan, R.M. (1999). A meta analytic review of experiments examining the effects of extrinsic rewards on intrinsic motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 125(6), 627 668. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.125.6.627
  16. Devellis, R. (2012). Scale development theory and applications. Sage Publications.
  17. Dhuey, E., & Smith, J. (2017). How school principals influence student learning. Empirical Economics, 54(2), 851-882. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00181-017-1259-9
  18. Field, A. (2013). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS Statistics. SAGE.
  19. Fraenkel, J.R., & Wallen, N.E. (2006). How to design and Evaluate research in Education. McGraw-Hill Companies.
  20. Frisch, V.V. (2018). Do pop quizzes have a positive effect on exam grades? [Master’s thesis, Otterbein University]. Digital Commons @ Otterbein. https://digitalcommons.otterbein.edu/stu_master/16/
  21. Gehringer, E.F. (2001). Assignment and quality control of peer reviewers. In Proceedings of the 2001 American society for engineering education annual conference & exposition (pp. 6.224.1-6.224.8). https://doi.org/10.18260/1-2%2D%2D8941
  22. Germaine, R., Pacis, D., Bustillos, T., Keough, P., Wheeler, D., & Weegar, M.A. (2011). Lessons learned through a review of grade appeal data. Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching, 4(1), 39-46. https://www.nu.edu/wp content/uploads/2018/11/journal of research in innovative teaching volume-4.pdf
  23. Glover, S.H., Bumpus, M.A., Sharp, G.F., & Munchus, G.A. (2002). Gender differences in ethical decision making. Women in Management Review, 17(5), 217 227. https://doi.org/10.1108/09649420210433175
  24. Griffith, A.L., & Sovero, V. (2021). Under pressure: How faculty gender and contract uncertainty impact students’ grades. Economics of Education Review, 83, 102 126. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2021.102126
  25. Grove, W.A., & Wasserman, T. (2004). The life-cycle pattern of collegiate GPA: Longitudinal cohort analysis and grade inflation. The Journal of Economic Education, 35(2), 162 174. https://doi.org/10.3200/jece.35.2.162-174
  26. Groves, J. (2003). Perceptions of extra credit by hospitality and tourism faculty. Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Education, 15(3), 38-43. https://doi.org/10.1080/10963758.2003.10697026
  27. Haladyna, T.M., Nolen, S.B., & Haas, N.S. (1991). Raising standardized achievement test scores and the origins of test score pollution. Educational Researcher, 20(5), 2-7. https://doi.org/10.2307/1176395
  28. Howard, J.R., & Henney, A.L. (1998). Student participation and instructor gendering the Mixed Age College classroom. The Journal of Higher Education, 69(4), 384 405. https://doi.org/10.1080/00221546.1998.11775141
  29. Howell, D.C. (2007). Statistical methods for Psychology. Thomson.
  30. Jewell, R.T., & McPherson, M. (2012). Instructor- Specific grade inflation: Incentives, gender, and ethnicity. Social Science Quarterly, 93(1), 95 109. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540 6237.2011.00827.x
  31. Jewell, R.T., McPherson, M., & Tieslau, M. (2013). Whose fault is it? Assigning blame for grade inflition in higher education. Applied Economics, 45(9), 1185 1200. https://doi.org/10.1080/00036846.2011.621884
  32. Kaya, A.B., & Nartgün S.S. (2016). Özel okul velilerinin beklentileri doğrultusunda okul imajı oluşturma [Creating a school image in line with the expectations of private school parents]. Journal of Research in Education and Teaching, 5(2), 153 167. http://www.jret.org/FileUpload/ks281142/File/17.senay_nartgun.pdf
  33. Kezim, B., Pariseau, S.E., & Quinn, F. (2005). Is grade inflation related to faculty status? Journal of Education for Business, 80(6), 358-364. https://doi.org/10.3200/joeb.80.6.358-364
  34. Kolevzon, M.S. (1981). Grade inflation in higher education: A comparative study. Research in Higher Education, 15(3), 195-212. https://doi.org/10.1007/bf00976416
  35. Koretz, D. (2005). Alignment, high stakes, and the inflation of test scores. Yearbook of The National Society for The Study of Education, 104(2), 99 118. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744 7984.2005.00027.x
  36. Kulas, J.T., Stachowski, A.A., & Haynes, B.A. (2008). Middle response functioning in Likert responses to personality items. Journal of Business and Psychology, 22(3), 251 259. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10869-008-9064-2
  37. Kulik, J.A., Kulik, C.C., & Bangert, R.L. (1984). Effects of practice on aptitude and achievement test scores. American Educational Research Journal, 21(2), 435 447. https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312021002435
  38. Lavy, V. (2008). Do gender stereotypes reduce girls’ or boys’ human capital outcomes? Evidence from a natural experiment. Journal of Public Economics, 92(10 11), 2083 2105. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2008.02.009
  39. Lipnevich, A.A., Guskey, T.R., Murano, D.M., & Smith, J.K. (2020). What do grades mean? Variation in grading criteria in American college and university courses. Assessment in Education: Principles, Policy & Practice, 27(5), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.1080/0969594X.2020.1799190
  40. Marshall, K. (2003, October 1). Test Prep The Junk Food of Education. Education Week. https://www.edweek.org/teaching-learning/opinion-test-prep-the-junk-food-of-education/2003/10
  41. McDaniel, M.A., Anderson, J.L., Derbish, M.H., & Morrisette, N. (2007). Testing the testing effect in the classroom. The European Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 19(4 5), 494 513. https://doi.org/10.1080/09541440701326154
  42. McMillan, J.H. (2001). Secondary teachers’ classroom assessment and grading practices. Educational Measurement Issues and Practice, 20(1), 20 32. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745 3992.2001.tb00055.x
  43. Milovanska-Farrington, S. (2022). Do parents expect too much or is it all about grades? The discrepancy between parents’ aspirations and child’s academic performance, and parental satisfaction with the school. Cogent Economics & Finance, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/23322039.2022.2079178
  44. Ministry of National Education [MoNE]. (2018). 2018 Liselere Geçiş Sistemi (LGS) [2018 High School Transition System]. https://www.meb.gov.tr/meb_iys_dosyalar/2018_12/17094056_2018_lgs_rapor.pdf
  45. Moore, W.P. (1993, April 13-15). Preparation of students for testing: Teacher differentiation of appropriate and inappropriate practices [Paper presentation]. The annual meeting of the national council on measurement in education, Atlanta, GA, United States. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED357033.pdf
  46. Morrell, W.E. (1945). Quizzes to encourage preparation for lectures. Journal of Chemical Education, 22(8), 402-405. https://doi.org/10.1021/ed022p402
  47. Newsom, J.T. (2017). Structural models for binary repeated measures: Linking modern longitudinal structural equation models to conventional categorical data analysis for matched pairs. Structural Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 24(4), 626 635. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2016.1276837
  48. Nichols, S.L., & Berliner, D.C. (2007). Collateral damage: How high-stakes testing corrupts America’s schools. Harvard Education Press.
  49. Gershenson, S. (2018). Grade inflation in high schools (2005–2016). Thomas B. Fordham Institute.
  50. Pfeifer, J.H., Brown, C.S., & Juvonen, J. (2007). Prejudice reduction in schools teaching tolerance in schools: Lessons learned since Brown v. Board of Education about the development and reduction of children’s prejudice. Social Policy Report, 21(2), 1 24. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.2379 3988.2007.tb00051.x
  51. Popham, W.J. (1991). Appropriateness of teachers’ test preparation practices. Educational Measurement: Issues and Practice, 10(4), 12 15. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1745 3992.1991.tb00211.x
  52. Popham, W.J. (2001, March 1). Teaching to the test? ASCD. https://www.ascd.org/el/articles/teaching-to-the-test
  53. Posner, D. (2004). What’s wrong with teaching to the test? Phi Delta Kappan, 85(10), 749 751. https://doi.org/10.1177/003172170408501009
  54. Pintrich, P.R. (2003). A Motivational Science perspective on the role of student motivation in learning and teaching contexts. Journal of Educational Psychology, 95(4), 667 686. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.95.4.667
  55. Pynes, C.A. (2014). Seven arguments against extra credit. Teaching Philosophy, 37(2), 191 214. https://doi.org/10.5840/teachphil20144414
  56. Reardon, S.F. (2011). The widening academic achievement gap between the rich and the poor: New evidence and possible explanations. In R. Murnane & G. Duncan (Eds.), Whither opportunity? Rising inequality and the uncertain life chances of low income children (pp. 91-116). Russell Sage Foundation Press.
  57. Rojstaczer, S., & Healy, C. (2012). Where a is ordinary: The evolution of American College and university grading, 1940 2009. Teachers College Record, 114(7), 1 23. https://doi.org/10.1177/016146811211400707
  58. Rothstein, J. (2007). Does competition among public schools benefit students and taxpayers? comment. The American Economic Review, 97(5), 2026-2037. https://doi.org/10.1257/aer.97.5.2026
  59. Saha, L.J., & Dworkin, A.G. (2009). International handbook of research on teachers and teaching. Springer.
  60. Shepard, T. (2010, October 21-23). The use of extra credit to improve course design [Paper Presentation]. 2010 North Midwest Section, Mankato, Minnesota, United States https://doi.org/10.18260/1-2-1114-36472
  61. Sirin, S.R. (2005). Socioeconomic status and academic achievement: A meta analytic review of research. Review of Educational Research, 75(3), 417 453. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543075003417
  62. Smith, D.E., & Fleisher, S. (2011). The implications of grade inflation: Faculty integrity versus the pressure to succeed. Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching, 4(1), 32 38. http://www.nu.edu/assets/resources/pageResources/journal-of-research-in-innovative-teaching-volume-4.pdf
  63. Sonner, B.S., & Sharland, A. (1993). Grading differences between graduate teaching assistants and faculty members in the introductory marketing class. Journal of Marketing Education, 15(2), 44-49. https://doi.org/10.1177/027347539301500207
  64. Stajkovic, A.D., Luthans, F. (1997. Business ethics across cultures: A social cognitive model. Journal of World Business, 32(1), 17-34. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1090-9516(97)90023-7
  65. Walsh, P. (2010). Does competition among schools encourage grade inflation? Journal of School Choice, 4(2), 149-173. https://doi.org/10.1080/15582159.2010.483918
  66. Warwick, D P., & Jatoi, H. (1994). Teacher gender and student achievement in Pakistan. Comparative Education Review, 38(3), 377-399. https://doi.org/10.1086/447257
  67. Woodruff, D.J., & Ziomek, R.L. (2004). High School Grade Inflation from 1991 to 2003. ACT.
  68. Xiao, Y., & Lucking, R. (2008). The impact of two types of peer assessment on students’ performance and satisfaction within a Wiki environment. The Internet and Higher Education, 11(3-4), 186-193. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2008.06.005
  69. Ziomek, R.L., & Svec, J.C. (1997). High school grades and achievement: Evidence of grade inflation. NASSP Bulletin, 81(587), 105-113. https://doi.org/10.1177/019263659708158716