Journals / Pamukkale Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi / 2026 / Sayı: 72

CLIMATE CRISIS AND POLITICAL INSTABILITY IN THE MIDDLE EAST: A MULTIDIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS FROM AN ENVIRONMENTAL SECURITY PERSPECTIVE

ORTADOĞU’DA İKLİM KRİZİ VE SİYASAL İSTİKRARSIZLIK: ÇEVRESEL GÜVENLİK PERSPEKTİFİNDEN ÇOK BOYUTLU BİR ANALİZ

Pages
379–399
Publication Date
2026-01-19
🏛️Bibliographic metadata and full text access for this article are provided via DergiPark.
DergiPark Record ↗
✨

AI Summary & Key Takeaways

AI Insight
⚡ TL;DR(Too Long; Didn't Read)

Accordingly, the study concludes that comprehensive strategies prioritizing regional cooperation, justice-based climate policies, and interdisciplinary analysis are essential for addressing the intertwined environmental and political crises in the region.

📌 3 Key Takeaways

🎯
Objective & Hypothesis:This study analyzes the multidimensional impacts of climate change on political instability in the Middle East through the lens of environmental security.
📊
Key Findings & Data:It demonstrates how environmental stressors—such as water scarcity, desertification, food insecurity, and ecological degradation—function as “threat multipliers” when interacting with weak governance structures, ethno-sectarian tensions, and fragile state institutions.
💡
Conclusion & Impact:Accordingly, the study concludes that comprehensive strategies prioritizing regional cooperation, justice-based climate policies, and interdisciplinary analysis are essential for addressing the intertwined environmental and political crises in the region.
🔬Design:Derleme
📍Scope:Comprehensive Sample
⚙️Variables:İklim krizi · Çevresel stres · Ortadoğu

Abstract

This study analyzes the multidimensional impacts of climate change on political instability in the Middle East through the lens of environmental security. It demonstrates how environmental stressors—such as water scarcity, desertification, food insecurity, and ecological degradation—function as “threat multipliers” when interacting with weak governance structures, ethno-sectarian tensions, and fragile state institutions. Drawing on case studies from Syria, Iraq, Palestine, Egypt and Yemen, the research shows that these environmental factors do not directly cause conflict but exacerbate existing structural vulnerabilities, thereby reinforcing political instability. The study underscores that climate change is not merely an ecological issue but also a significant driver of societal and administrative insecurity. It argues that narrowly defined security-centered approaches fall short in addressing these complex dynamics. Accordingly, the study concludes that comprehensive strategies prioritizing regional cooperation, justice-based climate policies, and interdisciplinary analysis are essential for addressing the intertwined environmental and political crises in the region.

Özet

Bu çalışma, iklim değişikliğinin Ortadoğu’daki siyasal istikrarsızlık üzerindeki çok boyutlu etkilerini çevresel güvenlik perspektifinden analiz etmektedir. Su kıtlığı, çölleşme, gıda güvencesizliği ve çevresel bozulma gibi stres faktörlerinin; zayıf yönetişim, etnik-mezhebi gerilimler ve kırılgan devlet yapılarıyla etkileşerek nasıl bir “tehdit çarpanı” işlevi gördüğü ortaya konmuştur. Suriye, Irak, Filistin, Mısır ve Yemen gibi örnek vakalar üzerinden, çevresel faktörlerin doğrudan değil fakat yapısal kırılganlıkları derinleştirici etkilerle siyasal istikrarsızlıkları pekiştirdiği tartışılmıştır. Çalışma, iklim krizinin yalnızca ekolojik değil; aynı zamanda toplumsal ve yönetsel düzlemlerde güvenlik tehditlerini artıran bir unsur haline geldiğini vurgulamakta ve salt güvenlikçi yaklaşımların yetersizliğine dikkat çekmektedir. Bu doğrultuda, bölgesel iş birliğini, adalet temelli iklim politikalarını ve disiplinlerarası analizleri önceleyen bütüncül yaklaşımların geliştirilmesi gerektiği sonucuna varılmıştır.

🔖

Cite This Article

Dağ, A. E. (2026). CLIMATE CRISIS AND POLITICAL INSTABILITY IN THE MIDDLE EAST: A MULTIDIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS FROM AN ENVIRONMENTAL SECURITY PERSPECTIVE. Pamukkale Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Enstitüsü Dergisi, Sayı: 72, 379–399. https://doi.org/10.30794/pausbed.1755919

📄 Full Text PDF Viewer

📄

PDF görüntüleyici hazırlanıyor...

References (143)

  1. Abdelhady, D. vd. (2015). The Nile and the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam: Is There a Meeting Point between Nationalism and Hydrosolidarity? Journal of Contemporary Water Research & Education, 155(1), 73-82, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1936-704X.2015.03197.x
  2. Abdel‑Samad, M. & Khoury, A. (2006). Water Scarcity in the Middle East, Journal of Peacebuilding & Development, 3(1), 63–74, https://doi.org/10.1080/15423166.2006.638088189086
  3. Alarabiya, (2023). Climate Change Leads to Extreme Poverty, Displacement for Many in Iraq, (24.09.2025), https://english.alarabiya.net/News/middle-east/2023/11/29/Climate-change-leads-to-extreme-poverty-displacement-for-many-in-Iraq
  4. Alatout, S. (2010). Water and Society in Jordan and Israel Today: An Introductory Overview., Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, 368(1933), 513–530. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsta.2010.0217
  5. Ali, E. vd. (2022). “Mediterranean Region” Climate Change 2022: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, (Ed. Pörtner, H.O. vd.), Cambridge University Press, UK, ss. 2233–2272, https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009325844.021
  6. Almheiri, A. vd. (2024). Climate Change Hazards and the Resilience of Coastal Cities in the Gulf Cooperation Council Countries: A Systematic Rview, City and Environment Interactions, 24(1), 1-17, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cacint.2024.100177
  7. Al‐Mudaffar fawzi vd. (2016). Effects of Mesopotamian Marsh (Iraq) Desiccation on the Cultural Knowledge and Livelihood of Marsh Arab Women. Ecosystem Health and Sustainability, 2(3), 1-16, https://doi.org/10.1002/ehs2.1207
  8. Al-Saidi, M. (2020). Contribution of Water Scarcity and Sustainability Failures to Disintegration and Conflict in The Arab Region—The Case of Syria and Yemen, Arab Studies Quarterly, 42(3), 281–300, https://doi.org/10.13169/arabstudieduc.42.3.0281
  9. Al‑Sarihi, A. (2025, April 29). Climate‑Induced Security Challenges in The Middle East. Middle East Institute, National University of Singapore, (03.06.2025) https://mei.nus.edu.sg/publication/climate-induced-security-challenges-in-the-middle-east
  10. Altun, A. & Şahin, D. (2023), İklim Değişikliği ve Turizm: Sivas İli Örneği, Sivas Interdisipliner Turizm Araştırmaları Dergisi, 6(1), 1- 31.
  11. American Geophysical Union. (2022). (02.06.2025) https://phys.org/news/2024-11-staggering-temperature-middle-east-north
  12. AP, (2023). Nasty Drought in Syria, Iraq and Iran Wouldn’t Have Happened Without Climate Change, Study Finds, Associated Press, (25.09.2025), https://apnews.com/article/climate-change-drought-syria-iraq-iran-bd1c8458da5fbd2be766b25ecd86e958
  13. Arkeh, J. (2025). Climate Resilience in the MENA Region: Navigating Challenges, Empowering Communities, and Transforming Governance, (01.06.2025) https://carnegieendowment.org/research/2025/05/climate-resilience-in-the-mena-region-navigating-challenges-empowering-communities-and-transforming-governance
  14. Asi, M. Y. (2021). Climate Change in the Arab World: An Existential Threat in an Unstable Region, Arab Center Washington DC, (03.06.2025), https://arabcenterdc.org/resource/climate-change-in-the-arab-world-an-existential-threat-in-an-unstable-region
  15. B’Tselem. (2023, May). “Parched: Israel’s policy of water deprivation in the West Bank” B’Tselem, (05.06.2025) https://www.btselem.org/publications/202305_parched
  16. Babahanoğlu, V. (2023). Uluslararası İlişkilerde Yeşil Yolculuk: Bir Güvenlik Sorunu Olarak Küresel İklim Değişikliği ve İklim Mülteciliği. Dumlupınar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, (77), 184-200. https://doi.org/10.51290/dpusbe.1290496
  17. Babahanoğlu, V. (2023). Uluslararası İlişkilerde Yeşil Yolculuk: Bir Güvenlik Sorunu Olarak Küresel İklim Değişikliği ve İklim Mülteciliği. Dumlupınar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi (77), 184-200. https://doi.org/10.51290/dpusbe.1290496 Balsari, S. vd. (2020). Climate Change, Migration, and Civil Strife. Current Environmental Health Reports, (7), 404–414, https://doi.org/10.1007/s40572-020-00291-4
  18. Barnett, J. (2000). Destabilizing the Environment‑Conflict Thesis, Review of International Studies, 26(2), 271–288, https://doi.org/10.1017/S0260210500002710
  19. Baysal, B., & Karakaş, U. (2017). Climate Change and Security: Different Perceptions, Different Approaches. Uluslararası İlişkiler/International Relations, 14(54), 21-44.
  20. Bellin, E. (2004). The Robustness of Authoritarianism in the Middle East: Exceptionalism in Comparative Perspective, Comparative Politics, 36(2), 139–157. https://doi.org/10.2307/4150140 Bilben, M. S. (2019). Dünyadan Örnekler Işığında İklim Değişikliği Kaynaklı Göçleri Anlamak. Akdeniz İnsani Bilimler Dergisi, 9(2), 335-355.
  21. Buhaug, H. (2010). Climate Not to Blame for African Civil Wars. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107(38), 16477–16482. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1014859107
  22. Châtel, F. (2018). Water Scarcity as a Long‑term Driver of Rural‑Urban Migration in Syria. Hydropolitik Akademi, (07.052025) https://hidropolitikakademi.org/en/article/23384/water-scarcity-as-a-long-term-driver-of-rural-urban-migration-in-syria
  23. Chesler, A. (2024). Environmental Displacement and Political Instability: Evidence from Africa. Journal of Peace Research, 62(4), 1076-1094, https://doi.org/10.1177/00223433241274979
  24. Cooke, K. (2016). Turmoil in Saudi Water Sector as Country Runs Dry, (29.05.2025), https://www.middleeasteye.net/opinion/turmoil-saudi-water-sector-country-runs-dry?utm_source=chatgpt.com
  25. Çelenk, B. (2023). İklim Değişikliği, Tehdit Çarpanı Etkisi ve Güvenlik: İklim Güvenliğinden Uluslararası Güvenliğe, Güvenlik Stratejileri Dergisi, 19(46), 537-560, https://doi.org/10.17752/guvenlikstrtj.1321596
  26. Dalby, S. (2002). Environment, Scarcity and Violence, Global Environmental Politics, 2(4):125-130.
  27. Daoudy, M. (2024). Climate Change And Regional Instability in The Middle East. Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. (15.05.2025), https://www.cfr.org/report/climate-change-and-regional-instability-middle-east
  28. Dehcheshmeh, M. M. & Ghaedi, S. (2020). Climate Change and Ecological Migration: A Study of Villages in the Province of Khuzestan, Iran, Journal of Environmental Research, Engineering and Management, 76(1), 6-19, https://doi.org/10.5755/j01.erem.76.1.24513
  29. Demir, E. (2025). Uluslararası Sistemde İklim Değişikliği: Krizler ve Yeni Arayışlar. Uluslararası Ekonomi Siyaset İnsan ve Toplum Bilimleri Dergisi, 8(1), 81-94. https://doi.org/10.59445/ijephss.1597197
  30. Demir, İ. (2014). ECHAM5-B1 İklim Senaryosuna Göre Türkiye’de İklim Değişikliği ve Tarıma Olası Etkileri. Science and Technique in the 21st Century, 1(1), 1-6.
  31. Demir, İ. (2016). Küresel İklim Değişikliği ve İklim Değişikliği Çalışmaları. Science and Technique in the 21st Century, 1(5), 11-18.
  32. Deniz, M., & Hiç, Ö. (2022). İklim Değişikliği ve Tarımın Değişen Yüzü: Artan Riskler, Tarımdaki Daralmalar ve Orman Yangınları Sonrası Politika Önerileri. Biga İktisadi ve İdari Bilimler Fakültesi Dergisi, 3(1), 12-22.
  33. Dezfuli, A, vd. (2022). Compound Effects of Climate Change on Future Transboundary Water Issues in the Middle East, Earth’s Future, 10(4), 1-8, https://doi.org/10.1029/2022EF002683
  34. Dinc, P., & Eklund, L. (2023). Syrian Farmers in the Midst of Drought and Conflict: the Causes, Patterns, and Aftermath of Land Abandonment and Migration, Climate and Development, 16(5), 349–362. https://doi.org/10.1080/17565529.2023.2223600
  35. Dresse, A. vd. (2018). Environmental Peacebuilding: Towards a Theoretical Framework, Cooperation and Conflict, 54(1), 99-119. https://doi.org/10.1177/0010836718808331
  36. Duenwald, C. vd. (2022). Feeling the Heat: Adapting to Climate Change in the Middle East and Central Asia, International Monetary Fund Departmental Papers, 2022(008), https://doi.org/10.5089/9781513591094.087.A001 (28.05.2025), https://www.imf.org/en/Publications/Departmental-Papers-Policy-Papers/Issues/2022/03/25/Feeling-the-Heat-Adapting-to-Climate-Change-in-the-Middle-East-and-Central-Asia-464856
  37. Düger, Y., & Yaman, M. (2023). İklim Değişikliği ve Çatışma. Kent Akademisi, 16(Türkiye Cumhuriyeti’nin 100. Yılı Özel Sayısı | Special Issue for the 100th Anniversary of the Republic of Türkiye), 149-174. https://doi.org/10.35674/kent.1347358
  38. Eckersley, R. (2007). International Relations Theories: Discipline and Diversity, Oxford University Press.
  39. EcoMENA. (2025). Land Degradation in the MENA region – Causes, Impact and Response, EcoMENA, (07.06.2025) https://www.ecomena.org/land-degradation-in-mena-region-causes-impact-and-response
  40. Eissa Y & Khalil, H. (2022). Urban Climate Change Governance within Centralised Governments: a Case Study of Giza, Egypt. Urban Forum, 33(2), 197-221, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12132-021-09441-9
  41. Elliott, L. (2012). Climate Change, Migration and Human Security in Southeast Asia, S. Rajaratnam School of International Studies, Singapure.
  42. Elsharkawy, S.A. vd. (2024). Knowledge, Perception, and Practices Regarding Climate Change among Students of Al-Azhar University for Girls in Cairo, Egypt. Journal of Public Health, 32, 1251–1260, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10389-023-01901-9
  43. Essaber, S. vd. (2023). “Catalyzing Climate Finance for Climate Actions in MENA Countries: A Holistic View of Egypt, Morocco, and Tunisia”, Digital Economy, Energy and Sustainability. Green Energy and Technology (ed: Abdelli, A; Shahbaz, M.). Springer, Berlin, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-22382-2_4
  44. Falkenmark, M., & Widstrand, C. (2021). Population and Water Resources: A Delicate Balance, Popul Bull, 47(3), 1-36, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12344702
  45. FAO, (2021). Near East and North Africa – Regional Overview of Food Security and Nutrition 2021: Statistics and Trends, The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, (02.06.2025) https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/d88193ff-e8ad-4994-bb98-5afb24781e84/content
  46. FAO, (2024). Iran Partner with FAO and Green Climate Fund to Strengthen Climate Resilience, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, (24.09.2025), https://www.fao.org/iran/news/detail/Iran-partner-with-FAO-and-Green-Climate-Fund-to-strengthen-climate-resilience/en
  47. FAO, (2025). FAO Study Reveals Alarming Agricultural Land Degradation in the Arab Region, Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, (24.09.2025), https://www.fao.org/newsroom/detail/fao-study-reveals-alarming-agricultural-land-degradation-in-the-arab-region
  48. FAO. (2018). Effective Management of Water Resources in Arab World Key to Future Growth and Stability, Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, (04.06.2025) https://www.fao.org/neareast/news/details/Effective-Management-of-Water-Resources-in-Arab-World-Key-to-Future-Growth-and-Stability
  49. FAO. (2025). 2025 Global Report on Food Crises, The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, (03.06.2025) https://openknowledge.fao.org/items/e98e2938-1905-497c-85bc-f4cf51872bd1
  50. Freedman, B. (2023). Getting Ahead of the Middle East’s Climate Refugee Conundrum, Middle East Institute, (02.06.2025), www.mei.edu/publications/getting-ahead-middle-easts-climate-refugee-conundrum
  51. Gleditsch, N. P. (2012). Whither the Weather? Climate Change and Conflict, Journal of Peace Research, 49(1), 3-9, https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343311431288
  52. Gleick, P. H. (2014). Water, Drought, Climate Change, And Conflict in Syria. Weather, Climate, and Society, 6(3), 331–340. https://doi.org/10.1175/WCAS-D-13-00059.1
  53. Greenpeace. (2023). How Climate Change Threatens Agriculture and Food Security in MENA?, Greenpeace Middle East and North Africa, (04.06.2025) https://www.greenpeace.org/mena/en/how-climate-change-threatens-agriculture-and-food-security-in-mena
  54. Gunaim, E. (2009). “A Remote Sensing Study of Some Impacts of Global Warming on the Arab Region”, Arab Environment: Climate Change. Impact of Climate Change on Arab Countries (ed. Tolba, M. K. & Saab, N. W.), Afed, Beirut.
  55. Haddadin, M. (2002). Water Issues in the Middle East Challenges and Opportunities, Water Policy, 4(3), 205-222. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1366-7017(02)00028-4
  56. Hassaniyan, A. (2024). Iran’s Water Policy: Environmental Injustice and Peripheral Marginalisation. Progress in Physical Geography: Earth and Environment, 48(3), 420-437. https://doi.org/10.1177/03091333241252523
  57. Homer‑Dixon, T. F. (1994). Environmental Scarities and Violent Conflict: Evidence from Cases. International Security, 19(1), 5–40. https://doi.org/10.1162/isec.1994.19.1.5
  58. Homer‑Dixon, T. F. (1999). Environment, Scarcity, and Violence: Causes, Contexts, and Responses, Princeton University Press, Princeton, https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400822997
  59. Human Rights Watch. (2018, Temmuz 24). Iraq: Security Forces Fire on Protesters in Basra, Human Rights Watch, (10.06.2025) https://www.hrw.org/news/2018/07/24/iraq-security-forces-fire-protesters
  60. Ide, T. (2023). Catastrophes, Confrontations, and Constraints: Climate Disasters, Conflict Risk and Governance, Oxford University Press.
  61. Ide, T. vd. (2020). Pathways to Water Conflict during Drought in the MENA Region, Journal of Peace Research, 58(3), 568-582. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343320910777
  62. IMF, (2022a). Feeling the Heat: Adapting to Climate Change in the Middle East and Central Asia, International Monetary Fund, (23.09.2025) https://www.elibrary.imf.org/view/journals/087/2022/008/article-A001-en.xml
  63. IMF, (2022b). Without Adaptation, Middle East and Central Asia Face Crippling Climate Losses, International Monetary Fund, (24.09.2025), https://www.imf.org/en/Blogs/Articles/2022/03/30/blog-without-adaptation-middle-east-and-central-asia-face-crippling-climate-losses
  64. Jafino, B. A., vd. (2021). Enabling Assessment of Distributive Justice Through Models for Climate Change Planning: A Review of Recent Advances and A Research Agenda, WIREs Climate Change, 12(4), 1-23, https://doi.org/10.1002/wcc.721
  65. Joelsson, J. (2023). War, Not Drought, Reason for Mass Migration From Syria, Lund University Centre for Advanced Middle Eastern Studies, (24.09.2025), https://www.cmes.lu.se/article/war-not-drought-reason-mass-migration-syria
  66. Karakoç, D. Y. & Kovancı, E. (2019) Bir Güvenlik Tehdidi Olarak İklim Değişikliği. ASSAM Uluslararası Hakemli Dergi, Özel Sayı, 344-357.
  67. Kelley, C. P., Mohtadi, S., Cane, M. A., Seager, R., & Kushnir, Y. (2015). Climate Change in The Fertile Crescent And Implications Of The Recent Syrian Drought. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112(11), 3241–3246. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1421533112
  68. Kibaroglu, A. (2017). State-of-the-Art Review of Transboundary Water Governance in the Euphrates–Tigris River Basin, International Journal of Water Resources Development, 35(1), 4–29. https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2017.1408458
  69. Kibaroglu, A., & Ünver, O. (2000). An Institutional Framework for Facilitating Cooperation in the Euphrates–Tigris River Basin, International Negotiation, 5(2), 311–330. https://doi.org/10.1163/15718060020848785
  70. Klepp, S., & Fröhlich, C. (2020). Migration and Conflict in a Global Warming Era: A Political Understanding of Climate Change, Social Sciences, 9(5), 78, https://doi.org/10.3390/socsci9050078
  71. Knaepen, H. (2024). Tackling transboundary climate risks in the Middle East and North Africa, Adaptation Without Borders Policy Brief 4, (02.06.2025) https://adaptationwithoutborders.org/knowledge-base/adaptation-without-borders/tackling-transboundary-climate-risks-in-the-middle-east-and-north-africa
  72. Koubi, V. vd. (2020). Environmental Migrants and Social-Movement Participation, Journal of Peace Research, 58(1), 18-32. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343320972153
  73. Lelieveld, J., vd. (2021). Climate Change and Impacts in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East. Climatic Change, 114, 667–687, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-012-0418-4
  74. Mamshai, F. H. A. (2023). Climate Change as a Threat Multiplier: Security and Communal Implications for Iraq, Community Change, 4(2), 1-17, https://doi.org/10.21061/cc.v4i2.a.41
  75. Maxwell, J. W., & Reuveny, R. (2000). Resource Scarcity and Conflict in Developing Countries. Journal of Peace Research, 37(3), 301-322. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343300037003002
  76. Mekonnen, M. M. & Hoekstra, A. (2016). Four Billion People Facing Severe Water Scarcity, Science Advances, 2(2), 1-6, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.1500323
  77. Mena, R. & Hilhorst, D. (2022). The Transition from Development and Disaster Risk Reduction to Humanitarian Relief: The Case of Yemen During High‐Intensity Conflict, Disasters, 46(4), 1049–1074, https://doi.org/10.1111/disa.12521
  78. Mena, R. (2024). Review of the book Catastrophes, Confrontations, and Constraints: How Disasters Shape the Dynamics of Armed Conflicts, by Tobias Ide, Journal of Disaster Studies 1(2), 285-288. https://dx.doi.org/10.1353/jds.00002
  79. Mohtadi, S. (2012). Climate Change And The Syrian Uprising. Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists. (09.05.2025) https://thebulletin.org/2012/08/climate-change-and-the-syrian-uprising
  80. Moore, S. (2011). Parchedness, Politics, and Power: The State Hydraulic in Yemen, Political Ecology, 18(1), 38–50, https://doi.org/10.2458/v18i1.21705
  81. Mostafa, W. vd. (2023). Impacts of Human Activities on Urban Sprawl and Land Surface Temperature in Rural Areas, a Case Study of El-Reyad District, Kafrelsheikh Governorate, Egypt, Sustainability, 15(18), 13497, https://doi.org/10.3390/su151813497
  82. Muratoğlu, A. & Wassar, F. (2024). Water at the Intersection of Human Rights and Conflict: a Case Study of Palestine, Front. Water, 6(1470201), https://doi.org/10.3389/frwa.2024.1470201
  83. Namdar, R. vd. (2021). Climate Change and Vulnerability: The Case of MENA Countries. ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information, 10(11), 794. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi10110794
  84. Nanda, S. vd. (2021). Inequity in Climate Negotiations: A Call for Justice in the Global South, National State Journal of International Studies, 4(2), 153-177, https://doi.org/10.24076/nsjis.v4i2.444
  85. NASA. (2013). Freshwater Stores Shrank in Tigris-Euphrates Basin, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, (03.06.2025) https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/80613/freshwater-stores-shrank-in-tigris-euphrates-basin?
  86. Nasr, H., & Neef, A. (2016). Ethiopia’s Challenge to Egyptian Hegemony in the Nile River Basin: The Case of the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam. Geopolitics, 21(4), 969–989. https://doi.org/10.1080/14650045.2016.1209740
  87. Nasrallah, H.A. & Balling, R.C. (1995). Impact of Desertification on Temperature Trends in the Middle East. Environ Monit Assess, 37, 265–271, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00546894
  88. Norman, K. vd. (2024). The Climate Change-Conflict-Displacement Nexus in the MENA Region, Rice University’s Baker Institute for Public Policy, (07.06.2025), https://www.bakerinstitute.org/research/climate-change-conflict-displacement-nexus-mena-region, https://doi.org/10.25613/FQ9B-AH86
  89. OECD-FAO. (2023). OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2023-2032, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, (03.06.2025) https://www.oecd.org/en/publications/oecd-fao-agricultural-outlook-2023-2032_08801ab7-en.html
  90. Ostrom, E. (2008), Institutions and the Environment. Economic Affairs, 28(3), 24-31. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0270.2008.00840.x
  91. Özel, M., & Kılıç, S. (2011). Küresel Bir Sorun Olarak İklim Değişikliği ve İklim Politikaları. İstanbul Üniversitesi Siyasal Bilgiler Fakültesi Dergisi, (34), 137-169.
  92. Özer, H., & Özer, S. (2011). İklim Değişikliği ve Tarım Üzerindeki Etkileri. Atatürk Üniversitesi Ziraat Fakültesi Dergisi, 34(3), 287-292.
  93. Öztürk, K. (2002). Küresel İklim Değişikliği ve Türkiye’ye Olası Etkileri. Gazi Üniversitesi Gazi Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi, 22(1), 47-65.
  94. Rhein, S. & Jansesberger, V. (2024). Does Drought Exposure Erode Trust in the Political System in Sub-Saharan Africa?, Climatic Change, 177 (114), 1-19, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-024-03768-5
  95. Richardson, C. J. & Hussain, N. A. (2006). Restoring the Garden of Eden: An Ecological Assessment of the Marshes of Iraq, BioScience, 56(6), 477–489, https://doi.org/10.1641/0006-3568(2006)56[477:RTGOEA]2.0.CO;2
  96. Saghir, J. (2024). Key Environmental Challenges Facing the Middle East. Middle East Institute. (04.06.2025) https://www.mei.edu/publications/key-environmental-challenges-facing-middle-east
  97. Schaar, J. (2019). A Confluence of Crises: On Water, Climate and Security in the Middle East and North Africa, SIPRI Insights on Peace and Security, (11.06.2025) https://www.sipri.org/publications/2019/sipri-insights-peace-and-security/confluence-crises-water-climate-and-security-middle-east-and-north-africa
  98. Selby, J. (2003). Water, Power and Politics in the Middle East: The Other Israeli–Palestinian Conflict, I.B. Tauris.
  99. Serhal, G. B. vd. (2025). Threat Multiplier: The Hidden Role of Climate Change in Instability and Conflict in Syria and Yemen, National University of Singapure Insights, (314), (30.05.2025) https://mei.nus.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/Insight314.pdf
  100. SESRIC, (2024). Statistical Yearbook on OIC Member Countries 2024, Economic and Social Research and Training Centre for Islamic Countries, (23.09.2025), https://sesricdiag.blob.core.windows.net/sesric-site-blob/files/article/887.pdf
  101. SESRIC. (2025). OIC Statistics Database (OICStat) - Water Statistics, Statistical, Economic and Social Research and Training Centre for Islamic Countries, (23.09.2025), https://www.sesric.org/oicstat-water.php
  102. Shaban, A. (2023). Water: A Matter of Cooperation or Conflict Cmong Jordan, Israel and Palestine, Stimson Center, (09.06.2025) https://www.stimson.org/2023/water-a-matter-of-cooperation-or-conflict-among-jordan-israel-and-palestine
  103. SIPRI. (2023). Climate, Peace and Security Fact Sheet: Yemen, Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, (05.06.2025) https://www.sipri.org/sites/default/files/2023-06/2023_sipri-nupi_fact_sheet_yemen_june.pdf
  104. Sofuoğlu, E., & Ay, A. (2020). The Relationship Between Climate Change and Political Instability: the Case of MENA countries (1985:01-2016:12). Environmental Science and Pollution Research International, 27(12), 14033–14043. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-07937-8
  105. Sohrabi, R. (2025). The Politics of Drought in the Middle East, Case Study from Iran, Discover Environment, 3 (122), https://doi.org/10.1007/s44274-025-00334-3
  106. Sowers, J. L. (2019). Understanding Climate Vulnerability in the Middle East and North Africa, International Journal of Middle East Studies, 51(4), 621–25. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0020743819000692
  107. Sowers, J. L. vd. (2011). Climate Change, Water Resources, and the Politics of Adaptation in the Middle East and North Africa, Climatic Change, 104(3), 599-627, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10584-010-9835-4
  108. Sprusansky, D. (2020). Poor Governance, Conflict Worsen Climate Crisis in Middle East, Washington Report on Middle East Affairs, (04.06.2025) https://www.wrmea.org/waging-peace/poor-governance-conflict-worsen-climate-crisis-in-middle-east
  109. Srivastav, S. & Liaqat, N. (2025). Yemen’s Climate Fragility Trap: Trends, Consequences, and Pathways for Policy Action, International Growth Centre Poicy Brief, (04.06.2025) https://www.theigc.org/sites/default/files/2025-05/Srivastav-and-Liaqat-Policy-Brief-April-2025_0.pdf
  110. Suhail, M. vd. (2024). Issues of water resources in Saudi Arabia: Past, present, and future, Sustainability, 16(10), 4189. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16104189
  111. Todman, W. (2023). Environmental Civil Society in the Middle East, Center for Strategic and International Studies, (01.06.2025) https://www.csis.org/analysis/environmental-civil-society-middle-east
  112. Tol, R. S. J. (2021). State Capacity and Vulnerability to Natural Disasters, Cornell University, arXiv, 1-35, https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2104.13425 (09.06.2025) https://arxiv.org/abs/2104.13425
  113. Türkeş, M. (2008). Küresel iklim değişikliği nedir? Temel kavramlar, nedenleri, gözlenen ve öngörülen değişiklikler. İklim Değişikliği ve Çevre, 1(1), 26-37.
  114. UAC, (2023). Desertification Threatens the Arab Region with Severe Food Shocks,Union of Arab Chanbers, (25.09.2025), https://uac-org.org/en/News/details/5551
  115. Uexkull, V. vd. (2021). Security Implications of Climate Change: A Decade of Scientific Progress, Journal of Peace Research, 58(1), 3-17. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022343320984210
  116. UN, (2022). Migration, Environment, and Climate Change in Iraq, (24.09.2025), https://iraq.un.org/en/194355-migration-environment-and-climate-change-iraq
  117. UN, (2024). Migration and Climate Change in the Arab Region, (24.09.2025), https://iraq.un.org/en/259187-migration-and-climate-change-arab-region
  118. UNDP, (2025). Syria, Climate Change Adaptation, United Nations Development Program, (24.09.2025), https://www.adaptation-undp.org/explore/arab-states/syrian-arab-republic
  119. UNDP, (2025a). Egypt’s National Adaptation Plan, United Nations Development Program, (24.09.2025) https://www.undp.org/egypt/projects/egypts-national-adaptation-plan-nap
  120. UNDP, (2025b). Developing and Implementing Yemen’s National Adaptation Plan, United Nations Development Program, (24.09.2025), https://www.undp.org/yemen/projects/developing-and-implementing-yemens-national-adaptation-plan
  121. UNDP, (2025c). From Pitch to Impact Deep Dive into Climate Technology Startups, United Nations Development Programme, (24.09.2025), https://www.undp.org/sites/g/files/zskgke326/files/2025-03/climatech_report_update.pdf
  122. UNDRR. (2011). Drought Vulnerability in the Arab Region: Case Study – Syria (2000–2010), United Nations Office for Disaster Risk Reduction, (02.06.2025) https://www.undrr.org/publication/drought-vulnerability-arab-region-case-study-drought-syria-ten-years-scarce-water-2000
  123. UNEP, (2020). Iraq Launches National Adaptation Plan Process for Climate Change Resilience, United Nations Environment Program, (24.09.2025), https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/press-release/iraq-launches-national-adaptation-plan-process-climate-change
  124. UNEP. (2001). UN Environment Programme Releases Report on Demise of Mesopotamian Marshlands, United Nations Environment Programme, (02.06.2025) https://press.un.org/en/2001/unep98.doc.htm
  125. UNESCWA, (2025). Groundwater in the Arab region, United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia (ESCWA),(24.09.2025), https://www.unescwa.org/sites/default/files/pubs/pdf/water-development-report-9-english_6.pdf
  126. UN-ESCWA. (2013). Inventory of Shared Water Resources in Western Asia, United Nations Publication, Beirut, Lebanon.
  127. UN-ESCWA. (2022). Arab Development Portal, (12.04.2025), https://data.arabdevelopmentportal.com/ThematicDatasets?theme=b9aa7deac2b12640aed0669d4857a50b
  128. UN‑ESCWA. (2023). Migration and Climate Change in the Arab Region, Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia, (31.05.2025), www.unescwa.org/sites/default/files/pubs/pdf/migration_and_climate_change_in_the_arab_region-policy_brief-eng_0.pdf
  129. UNO-OIC, (2024). The State of Qatar Calls on Developed Countries to Fulfill Their Commitments to Reform Climate Action Financing Systems, Union of OIC New Agencies, (23.09.2025) https://una-oic.org/en.
  130. UNWMO. (2025). State of the Climate in Asia 2024, United Nations World Meteorological Organization, (02.06.2025) https://wmo.int/publication-series/state-of-climate-asia-2024
  131. Ünsal, R. B. (2024). İklim Değişikliği ile Mücadelede Paris Anlaşması ve İklim Adaleti. Ekonomi Yönetim Politika, 2(2), 112-126.
  132. Veen, E. vd. (2022). Cassandra Ccalling?: Development, Governance and Conflict Trends in the Middle East, Clingendael Institute, (05.06.2025) https://www.clingendael.org/pub/2022/the-middle-east-in-conflict-2010-2021
  133. Veilleux, J. C. (2017). “Water Conflict Case Study – Ethiopia's Grand Renaissance Dam: Turning from Conflict to Cooperation”, Reference Module in Earth Systems and Environmental Sciences (Ed. Elias, S. A), Elsevier, Hollanda.
  134. Vural, Ç. (2018). Küresel İklim Değişikliği ve Güvenlik. Güvenlik Bilimleri Dergisi, 7(1), 57-85. https://doi.org/10.28956/gbd.422726
  135. Weinthal, E. vd. (2015). Securitizing Water, Climate, and Migration in Israel, Jordan, and Syria, International Environmental Agreements: Politics, Law and Economics, 15, 293–307, https://doi.org/10.1007/s10784-015-9279-4
  136. Wheeler, K. G. vd. (2016). Cooperative Filling Approaches for the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam. Water International, 41(4), 611–634. https://doi.org/10.1080/02508060.2016.1177698
  137. World Bank. (2017). Beyond Scarcity: Water Security in the Middle East and North Africa, World Bank Group, (29.05.2025). https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/water/publication/beyond-scarcity-water-security-in-the-middle-east-and-north-africa
  138. World Bank. (2021). Millions on the Move in Their Own Countries: The Human Face of Climate Change, World Bank Group, (02.06.2025), https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/feature/2021/09/13/millions-on-the-move-in-their-own-countries-the-human-face-of-climate-change
  139. Yıldız Karakoç, D., & Kovancı, E. (2019). Bir Güvenlik Tehdidi Olarak İklim Değişikliği. ASSAM Uluslararası Hakemli Dergi, 344-357.
  140. Yılmaz, F. H., & Navruz, M. (2019). Küresel İklim Değişikliği, İklim Mültecileri ve Güvenlik. ASSAM Uluslararası Hakemli Dergi, 13. (Uluslararası Kamu Yönetimi Sempozyumu Bildirileri Özel Sayısı), 255-270.
  141. Zaki, A. vd. (2020). Evaluating Impacts of Irrigation and Drought on River, Groundwater and a Terminal Wetland in the Zayanderud Basin, Iran. Water, 12(5), 1302, https://doi.org/10.3390/w12051302
  142. Zaouaq, K. (2024). Climate Change, Conflicts, and Forced Migration in the Middle East (2006-2022). WIMAYA Interdisciplinary Journal of International Affairs, 5(02), 98–107. https://doi.org/10.33005/wimaya.v5i02.166
  143. Zeitoun, M., & Warner, J. (2006). Hydro-Hegemony – a Framework for Analysis of Trans-Boundary Water Conflicts, Water Policy, 8(5), 435–460. https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2006.054