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Journals / Psikoloji Çalışmaları / 2026 / Cilt: 46 Sayı: 1

Comparison of Cognitive Reflection Levels among University Students Based on Tobacco Use Habits: The Role of Gender and Numeracy Skills

Tütün Kullanım Alışkanlıklarına göre Üniversite Öğrencilerinin Bilişsel Yansıma Düzeylerinin Karşılaştırılması: Cinsiyet ve Sayısal Becerilerin Rolü

Şeyma Aydın Öztürk(İstanbul Atlas Üniversitesi)0000-0002-5366-5810
Wayne Malachy Dinn(İstanbul Atlas Üniversitesi)0000-0001-8470-9962
Ayşe Ayçiçeği Dinn(İstanbul Atlas Üniversitesi)0000-0002-4564-9511
Pages
65–87
Publication Date
2026-04-20
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⚡ TL;DR(Too Long; Didn't Read)

Findings indicated no significant difference in CRT performance among smokers (= 63), former smokers (= 37), and non-smokers (= 94); thus, the first hypothesis was not supported.

📌 3 Key Takeaways

🎯
Objective & Hypothesis:The global health crisis of tobacco use has increased the importance of research examining its effects on the brain and cognitive processes.
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Key Findings & Data:The primary aim of this study was to examine the effect of tobacco use on cognitive reflection performance among university students and evaluate whether this effect persists when controlling potential confounders such as gender, age, general intelligence, inhibitory control, depression, and anxiety.
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Conclusion & Impact:Findings indicated no significant difference in CRT performance among smokers (= 63), former smokers (= 37), and non-smokers (= 94); thus, the first hypothesis was not supported.
🔬Design:Araştırma Makalesi
📍Scope:Comprehensive Sample
⚙️Variables:Tütün kullanımı · bilişsel yansıma · Bilişsel Yansıma Testi (BYT)

Abstract

The global health crisis of tobacco use has increased the importance of research examining its effects on the brain and cognitive processes. The primary aim of this study was to examine the effect of tobacco use on cognitive reflection performance among university students and evaluate whether this effect persists when controlling potential confounders such as gender, age, general intelligence, inhibitory control, depression, and anxiety. Two hypotheses were tested: Hypothesis 1 (H1) posited that non-smokers would exhibit higher cognitive reflection levels than smokers, and Hypothesis 2 (H2) predicted that significant group differences would remain statistically significant after controlling confounding variables. The study included 194 university students aged 18-30. Cognitive reflection levels were assessed using the widely used Cognitive Reflection Test (CRT). Control measures included the Beck Depression Inventory, Vocabulary, Design Organization Test, Numeracy Scale, Color-Word Interference Test, and State Anxiety Inventory. Findings indicated no significant difference in CRT performance among smokers (= 63), former smokers (= 37), and non-smokers (= 94); thus, the first hypothesis was not supported. Analysis of Covariance for H2 revealed that tobacco use did not significantly affect CRT performance, whereas gender and numeracy skills did. Male participants and those with higher numeracy skills performed better on the CRT, thereby rejecting H2. These findings support the literature suggesting that the CRT, while designed to assess cognitive reflection, may measure numeracy skills and is influenced by gender. Furthermore, the low nicotine dependence levels among smokers suggest that the harmful cognitive effects of nicotine are not yet detectable in cognitive reflection levels in this sample. To our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive study examining smoking and cognitive reflection while controlling general intelligence, inhibitory control, and emotional state, making it a valuable contribution to the literature regarding what cognitive functions the CRT measures.

Özet

Tütün kullanımının küresel bir sağlık problemi olması, beyin ve bilişsel süreçler üzerindeki etkilerini inceleyen araştırmaların önemini artırmaktadır. Bu araştırmanın temel amacı, üniversite öğrencilerinde tütün kullanımının bilişsel yansıma performansı üzerindeki etkisini incelemek ve temel karıştırıcı değişkenler olan cinsiyet, yaş, genel zekâ, ketleyici kontrol, depresyon ve kaygı kontrol edildiğinde bu etkinin anlamlı olup olmadığını değerlendirmektir. Araştırmada iki hipotez test edilmiştir. Araştırmanın birinci hipoteziyle tütün ürünü kullanmayan öğrencilerin kullananlara kıyasla daha yüksek bilişsel yansıma düzeyine sahip olmaları beklenmiştir. İkinci hipotez ise araştırma gruplarının bilişsel yansıma düzeylerindeki anlamlı farkın karıştırıcı değişkenler kontrol edildiğinde dahi istatistiksel olarak anlamlı olmaya devam etmesi yönündedir. Araştırmaya 18-30 yaş aralığında 194 üniversite öğrencisi katılmış olup katılımcıların bilişsel yansıma düzeyleri literatürde sıkça kullanılan Bilişsel Yansıma Testi (BYT) ile değerlendirilmiştir. Karıştırıcı değişkenler için Beck Depresyon Envanteri, Sözcük Dağarcığı Alt Ölçeği, Desen Organizasyon Testi, Aritmetik Ölçeği, Renk-Kelime Karışım Testi ve Durumluk Kaygı Envanteri kullanılmıştır. Araştırma bulguları, tütün ürünü kullanan (= 63), kullanıp bırakan (= 37) ve kullanmayan katılımcıların (= 94) BYT performansları arasında anlamlı bir fark olmadığını göstermiş olup birinci hipotez desteklenmemiştir. İkinci hipotez için yürütülen kovaryans analizleri sonucunda tütün kullanımının değil, cinsiyet özelliklerinin ve sayısal becerilerin BYT performansı üzerinde anlamlı rol oynadığı görülmüştür. Erkek katılımcıların ve sayısal becerisi yüksek olanların BYT’de daha başarılı olduğu anlaşılmış olup ikinci hipotez de reddedilmiştir. Bu bulgular, orijinal BYT’nin bilişsel yansıma düzeylerini değerlendirmek için geliştirilmiş olsa da aslında sayısal becerileri değerlendirdiğine ve cinsiyet özelliklerinden etkilendiğine dair literatürü desteklemektedir. Tütün ürünü kullanan katılımcıların bu ürünlere yönelik düşük bağımlılık göstermesi ise nikotinin bilişsel süreçlerdeki yıkıcı etkisinin henüz bilişsel yansıma düzeylerinde tespit edilmediği şeklinde yorumlanmıştır. Bilindiği kadarıyla bu çalışma genel zekâ, ketleyici kontrol, depresyon ve kaygı düzeylerini kontrol ederek tütün kullanımı ve bilişsel yansımayı inceleyen ilk kapsamlı çalışmadır ve BYT’nin gerçekte hangi bilişsel işlevleri ölçtüğüne ilişkin literatüre değerli bir katkı sunmaktadır.

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Cite This Article

Öztürk, Ş. A., Dinn, W. M., Dinn, A. A., *, Ş. A. Ö. (2026). Comparison of Cognitive Reflection Levels among University Students Based on Tobacco Use Habits: The Role of Gender and Numeracy Skills. Psikoloji Çalışmaları, Cilt: 46 Sayı: 1, 65–87. https://doi.org/10.26650/SP2024-1526916

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