SavedAdd your journal

Journals / Türkiye Jeoloji Bülteni / 2026 / Cilt: 69 Sayı: 1

Facies Evolution and Lake-Type Variability Related to Climatic Cycles in the Late Triassic Çakrazboz Formation, Western Pontides, Türkiye

Geç Triyas Yaşlı Çakrazboz Formasyonu’nda Fasiyes Evrimi ve İklimsel Döngülere Bağlı Göl Tipi Değişkenliği, Batı Pontidler, Türkiye / Facies Evolution and Lake-Type Variability Related to Climatic Cycles in the Late Triassic Çakrazboz Formation, Western Pontides, Türkiye

Gül Şen(VAN YÜZÜNCÜ YIL ÜNİVERSİTESİ)0000-0002-9729-242X
İsmail Ömer Yılmaz(ORTA DOĞU TEKNİK ÜNİVERSİTESİ)0000-0002-7967-3026
Pages
121–168
Publication Date
2026-01-13
🏛️Bibliographic metadata and full text access for this article are provided via DergiPark.
DergiPark Record ↗
✨

AI Summary & Key Takeaways

AI Insight
⚡ TL;DR(Too Long; Didn't Read)

These vertical facies transitions, stacking patterns, and diagenetic overprints are indicative of orbitally forced lake-level fluctuations under subhumid to semi-arid climate regimes, contributing to a broader understanding of Late Triassic continental basin evolution, facies architecture, and climate-controlled sedimentation.

📌 3 Key Takeaways

🎯
Objective & Hypothesis:The Çakrazboz Formation, located in the Amasra–Kastamonu region of the Western Pontides (NW Türkiye), represents the only known Triassic continental sedimentary succession in Türkiye.
📊
Key Findings & Data:This study integrates sedimentological, petrographic, and stratigraphic data from six measured sections to reconstruct depositional environments and evaluate paleoclimatic controls.
💡
Conclusion & Impact:These vertical facies transitions, stacking patterns, and diagenetic overprints are indicative of orbitally forced lake-level fluctuations under subhumid to semi-arid climate regimes, contributing to a broader understanding of Late Triassic continental basin evolution, facies architecture, and climate-controlled sedimentation.
🔬Design:Araştırma Makalesi
📍Scope:Comprehensive Sample
⚙️Variables:Fasiyes evrimi · Göl tipi değişkenliği · Yörüngesel döngüler

Abstract

The Çakrazboz Formation, located in the Amasra–Kastamonu region of the Western Pontides (NW Türkiye), represents the only known Triassic continental sedimentary succession in Türkiye. This study integrates sedimentological, petrographic, and stratigraphic data from six measured sections to reconstruct depositional environments and evaluate paleoclimatic controls. Field and thin-section analyses reveal a complex facies mosaic comprising three major lithofacies groups: lacustrine, palustrine, and fluvial. Lacustrine facies are represented by carbonate-rich successions, including micrite, wackestone, and packstone, indicating low-energy profundal to sublittoral settings. Palustrine facies, occurring predominantly in marginal lake environments, are characterized by pedogenic overprinting, fenestral fabrics, root traces, and desiccation features, with the Bozköy and Başköy-1 sections showing more pronounced development of these features. Başköy-2 and Başköy-3 exhibit fluvial point-bar deposits with upward-fining successions and pedogenically modified mudstones, representing meandering river systems deposited during overfilled lake stages. Stratigraphic and sedimentological evidence indicates that the basin experienced repeated shifts between underfilled, balanced-fill, and overfilled lake stages. Carbonate-rich successions in the Çakrazboz and lower İncigez sections represent low-energy profundal lacustrine conditions typical of underfilled stages. The upper İncigez and Başköy-1 sections preserve features of balanced-fill conditions, with fining-upward transgressive intervals overlain by progradational littoral facies. Overfilled conditions are locally recorded in Bozköy and in the upper parts of Başköy-1, as evidenced by laterally extensive successions that thicken and coarsen upward, reflecting sustained freshwater inflow. These vertical facies transitions, stacking patterns, and diagenetic overprints are indicative of orbitally forced lake-level fluctuations under subhumid to semi-arid climate regimes, contributing to a broader understanding of Late Triassic continental basin evolution, facies architecture, and climate-controlled sedimentation.

Özet

Çakrazboz Formasyonu, Türkiye’de bilinen tek Triyas yaşlı kıtasal tortul istif olarak Batı Pontidler’in (Kuzeybatı Türkiye) Amasra–Kastamonu yöresinde yüzeylenmektedir. Bu çalışmada, altı stratigrafik kesitten elde edilen sedimantolojik, petrografik ve stratigrafik veriler birleştirilerek depolanma ortamları yeniden yapılandırılmış ve paleoiklimsel kontrol mekanizmaları değerlendirilmiştir. Saha ve ince kesit analizleri, üç ana litofasiyes grubundan oluşan karmaşık bir fasiyes mozaiğini ortaya koymaktadır: göl, bataklık (palustrin) ve akarsu (flüviyal). Gölsel istifler, çamurtaşı (mikrit), vaketaşı ve tanetaşı gibi karbonatça zengin fasiyeslerden oluşmakta ve düşük enerjili derin göl-sublitoral (profundal–sublittoral) ortamlara işaret etmektedir. Palustrin fasiyesler, göl kenarı ortamlarında yaygın olup pedojenik alterasyon, fenestral dokular, kök izleri ve kuruma çatlakları ile karakterizedir; Bozköy ve Başköy-1 kesitlerinde bu özellikler daha belirgin şekilde gelişmiştir. Başköy-2 ve Başköy-3 kesitleri, yukarıya doğru incelen kumtaşı-çamurtaşı ardalanmaları ve pedojeneze uğramış çamurtaşlarından oluşan menderesli akarsu sistemlerine ait nokta bar istiflerini içerir ve bu istifler, gölün aşırı dolduğu (overfilled) evrelerde çökelmiştir. Stratigrafik ve sedimantolojik veriler, havzanın tekrar eden şekilde yetersiz dolu (underfilled), dengeli dolu (balanced-fill) ve aşırı dolu (overfilled) göl evreleri arasında geçtiğini göstermektedir. Çakrazboz ve alt İncigez kesitlerindeki karbonatça zengin istifler, yetersiz dolu evrelere özgü düşük enerjili profundal göl koşullarını temsil eder. Üst İncigez ve Başköy-1 kesitleri, üste doğru incelen transgresif istiflerin progradasyonlu litoral fasiyeslerle örtülmesiyle karakterize olan dengeli dolu koşulları yansıtır. Aşırı dolu koşullar, Bozköy ve Başköy-1’in üst seviyelerinde yer yer görülür ve bunlar, sürekli tatlı su girişiyle ilişkili yanal olarak genişleyen, üste doğru kalınlaşan ve tane boyu artan istiflerle tanımlanır. Dikey fasiyes geçişleri, istiflenme desenleri ve diyajenez izleri, yarı nemli ile yarı kurak iklim rejimleri altında yörüngesel zorlamalı göl seviyesi değişimlerini yansıtarak Geç Triyas kıtasal havza evrimi, fasiyes mimarisi ve iklim kontrollü sedimantasyon hakkında daha geniş bir anlayış sağlamaktadır.

🔖

Cite This Article

Şen, G., Yılmaz, İ. Ö. (2026). Facies Evolution and Lake-Type Variability Related to Climatic Cycles in the Late Triassic Çakrazboz Formation, Western Pontides, Türkiye. Türkiye Jeoloji Bülteni, Cilt: 69 Sayı: 1, 121–168. https://doi.org/10.25288/tjb.1765110

📄 Full Text PDF Viewer

📄

PDF görüntüleyici hazırlanıyor...

References (104)

  1. Adrian, R., O'Reilly, C. M., Zagarese, H., Baines, S. B., Hessen, D. O., Keller, W.,. & Winder, M. (2009). Lakes as sentinels of climate change. Limnology and oceanography, 54(6 part 2), 2283-2297. https://doi.org/10.4319/lo.2009.54.6_part_2.2283
  2. Akbaş, B., Altun, İ. T. & Bilgin, A. Z. (2002). 1:100,000 scale geological map of Turkey, Zonguldak E28 sheet. General Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration.
  3. Akdoğan, R., Hu, X., Okay, A. I., Topuz, G. & Xue, W. (2021). Provenance of the Paleozoic to Mesozoic siliciclastic rocks of the İstanbul Zone constrains the timing of the Rheic Ocean closure in the Eastern Mediterranean region. Tectonics, 40(12), e2021TC006824. https://doi.org/10.1029/2021TC006824
  4. Akman, Ü. (1992). Amasra-Arıt arasının jeolojisi [Yayımlanmamış Doktora Tezi]. PhD, Ankara University, Ankara, Turkey (in Turkish).
  5. Alişan, C., Derman, A. S. (1995). The first palynological age, sedimentological and stratigraphic data for the Çakraz Group (Triassic), Western Black Sea. Erler, In A., Ercan, T., Bingöl, E., & Örçen, S. (Eds.), Geology of the Black Sea region, 93-98.
  6. Alonso-Zarza, A. M. (2003). Palaeoenvironmental significance of palustrine carbonates and calcretes in the geological record. Earth-Science Reviews, 60(3-4), 261–298. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0012-8252(02)00106-X
  7. Alonso-Zarza, A. M. & Tanner, L. H. (2009). Carbonates in continental settings: facies, environments, and processes. Developments in Sedimentology, Volume 61. Elsevier.
  8. Alonso-Zarza, A. M. & Wright, V. P. (2010). Palustrine carbonates. In A. M. Alonso-Zarza & L. H. Tanner (Eds.), Developments in Sedimentology, 61, (pp. 103–131). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0070-4571(09)06102-0
  9. Argyilan, E. P. & Forman, S. L. (2003). Lake level response to seasonal climatic variability in the Lake Michigan-Huron system from 1920 to 1995. Journal of Great Lakes Research, 29(3), 488-500. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0380-1330(03)70453-5
  10. Armenteros, I. (2010). Diagenesis of carbonates in continental settings. In Alonso-Zarza, A.M. & Tanner, L.H. (Eds.), Developments in Sedimentology, 62, 61-151. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0070-4571(09)06202-5
  11. Bathurst, R. G. (1987). Diagenetically enhanced bedding in argillaceous platform limestones: stratified cementation and selective compaction. Sedimentology, 34(5), 749-778. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3091.1987.tb00801.x
  12. Boggs Jr, S. (2014). Principles of Sedimentology and Stratigraphy. Pearson Education.
  13. Boggs, S. (2006). Principles of Sedimentology and Stratigraphy (4th ed.). Pearson Prentice Hall.
  14. Bohacs, K. M., Carroll, A. R., Neal, J. E., & Mankiewicz, P. J. (2000). Lake-basin type, source potential, and hydrocarbon character: An integrated sequence-stratigraphic–geochemical framework. In E. H. Gierlowski-Kordesch & K. R. Kelts (Eds.), Lake Basins Through Space and Time. (Vol. 3, pp. 3–34). AAPG Studies in Geology. https://doi.org/10.1306/St46706C1
  15. Boucot, A. J., Xu, C., Scotese, C. R., & Morley, R. J. (2013). Phanerozoic Paleoclimate: an Atlas of Lithologic Indicators of Climate (vol. 11, pp. 1-30). SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology).
  16. Bustillo, M. A., Armenteros, I., & Huerta, P. (2017). Dolomitization, gypsum calcitization and silicification in carbonate–evaporite shallow lacustrine deposits. Sedimentology, 64(4), 1147-1172. https://doi.org/10.1111/sed.12345
  17. Carroll, A. R., & Bohacs, K. M. (1999). Stratigraphic classification of ancient lakes: Balancing tectonic and climatic controls. Geology, 27(2), 99–102. https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1999)027 2.3.CO;2
  18. Cecil, C. B. (1990). Paleoclimate controls on stratigraphic repetition of chemical and siliciclastic rocks. Geology, 18(6), 533–536. https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-7613(1990)018%3C0533:PCOSRO%3E2.3.CO;2
  19. De Wet, C. B., Yocum, D. A. & Mora, C. I. (1998). Carbonate lakes in closed basins: sensitive indicators of climate and tectonics: an example from the Gettysburg Basin (Triassic), Pennsylvania, USA. In G. Kocurek (Ed.), Relative Role of Eustacy, Climate, and Tectonism in Continental Rocks. SEPM Society for Sedimentary Geology. https://doi.org/10.2110/pec.98.59.0191
  20. Dickinson, W. R. (1985). Interpreting provenance relations from detrital modes of sandstones. In: Zuffa, G. G. (Eds.), Provenance of Arenites, (Series C, 148, pp. 333-361). North Atlantic Treaty Organization - Advanced Study Institutes (NATO-ASI). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-2809-6_15
  21. Dobkins, J. E. & Folk, R. L. (1970). Shape development on Tahiti-nui. Journal of Sedimentary Research, 40(4), 1167-1203. https://doi.org/10.1306/74D72162-2B21-11D7-8648000102C1865D
  22. Dunham, R. J. (1962). Classification of carbonate rocks according to depositional texture. In W. E. Ham (Ed.), Classification of Carbonate Rocks, (pp. 108–121). AAPG Memoir 1.
  23. Fijałkowska-Mader, A., Heunisch, C. & Szulc, J. (2015). Palynostratigraphy and palynofacies of the Upper Silesian Keuper (southern Poland). Annales Societatis Geologorum Poloniae, 85(4), 637-661. https://doi.org/10.14241/asgp.2015.025
  24. Flügel, E. (2010). Microfacies of Carbonate Rocks: Analysis, Interpretation and Application (2nd ed.). Springer.
  25. Folk, R. L. (1959). Practical petrographic classification of limestones. AAPG Bulletin, 43(1), 1–38. https://doi.org/10.1306/0BDA5C36-16BD-11D7-8645000102C1865D
  26. Folk, R. L. & Ward, W. C. (1957). Brazos River bar [Texas]; a study in the significance of grain size parameters. Journal of Sedimentary Research, 27(1), 3-26. https://doi.org/10.1306/74D70646-2B21-11D7-8648000102C1865D
  27. Franke, W., Paul, J. (1980). Pelagic redbeds in the Devonian of Germany – deposition and diagenesis. Sedimentary Geology, 25(3), 231–256. https://doi.org/10.1016/0037-0738(80)90043-3
  28. Freytet, P. (1973). Petrography and paleo-environment of continental carbonate deposits with particular reference to the Upper Cretaceous and Lower Eocene of Languedoc (Southern France). Sedimentary Geology, 10(1), 25-60. https://doi.org/10.1016/0037-0738(73)90009-2
  29. Freytet, P. & Verrecchia, E.P. (2002). Lacustrine and palustrine carbonate petrography: an overview. Journal of Paleolimnology, 27, 221–237. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1014263722766
  30. Friedman, G. M. (1961). Distinction between dune, beach and river sands from their textural characteristics. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 31(4), 514-529. https://doi.org/10.1306/74D70BCD-2B21-11D7-8648000102C1865D
  31. Gamero-Diaz, H., Miller, C. & Lewis, R. (2012). sCore: a classification scheme for organic mudstones based on bulk mineralogy. Search and Discovery, Article 40951.
  32. Gand, G., Tüysüz, O., Steyer, J. S., Allain, R., Sakınç, M., Sanchez, S., Şengör, A. M. C, & Sen, S. (2011). New Permian tetrapod footprints and macroflora from Turkey (Çakraz Formation, northwestern Anatolia): Biostratigraphic and palaeoenvironmental implications. Comptes Rendus Palevol, 10(8), 617-625. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crpv.2011.09.002
  33. Gedik, I. & Aksay, A. (2002). 1:100,000 scale geological map of Turkey, Zonguldak E29 sheet. General Directorate of Mineral Research and Exploration.
  34. Geological Society of America (GSA). (2009). Rock-Color Chart. Geological Society of America.
  35. Gierlowski-Kordesch, E. H. (2010). Lacustrine carbonates. In A. M. Alonso-Zarza & L. H. Tanner (Eds.), Carbonates in Continental Settings: Facies, Environments and Processes, (Vol. 61, pp. 1–101). Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0070-4571(09)06101-9
  36. Glenn, C. R. & Kelts, K. (1991). Sedimentary rhythms in lake deposits. Cycles and Events in Stratigraphy, (pp. 188–221). Springer.
  37. Golonka, J. (2007). Late Triassic and Early Jurassic palaeogeography of the world. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 244(1-4), 297-307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2006.06.041
  38. Gvirtzman, G. (2006). Groundwater hydrology and paleohydrology of the Dead Sea rift valley, In Y. Enzel, A. Agnon, M. Stein (Eds.), New Frontiers in Dead Sea Paleoenvironmental Research. Geological Society of America. https://doi.org/10.1130/2006.2401(06)
  39. Haq, B. U., Hardenbol, J. A. N., & Vail, P. R. (1987). Chronology of fluctuating sea levels since the Triassic. Science, 235(4793), 1156-1167. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.235.4793.1156
  40. Hedges, J. I., & Stern, J. H. (1984). Carbon and nitrogen determinations of carbonate‐containing solids. Limnology and Oceanography, 29(3), 657-663. https://doi.org/10.4319/lo.1984.29.3.0657
  41. Immenhauser, A. (2022). On the delimitation of the carbonate burial realm. The Depositional Record, 8(2), 524-574. https://doi.org/10.1002/dep2.173
  42. Kürschner, W. M. & Herngreen, G. W. (2010). Triassic palynology of central and northwestern Europe: a review of palynofloral diversity patterns and biostratigraphic subdivisions. In S.G. Lucas (Ed.), The Triassic Timescale, (pp. 263-283). The Geological Society of London. https://doi.org/10.1144/SP334.11
  43. Kutzbach, J. E. (1994). Idealized Pangean climates: sensitivity to orbital change. In G. O. Klein (Ed.), Pangea: Paleoclimate, Tectonics, and Sedimentation During Accretion, Zenith, and Breakup of a Supercontinent. Geological Society of America. https://doi.org/10.1130/SPE288-p41
  44. Mattes, B. W., & Mountjoy, E. W. (1980). Burial dolomitization of the Upper Devonian Miette buildup, Jasper National Park, Alberta. The Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists, 28, 259-297. https://archives.datapages.com/data/sepm_sp/SP28/Burial_Dolomitization.htm
  45. Miall, A. D. (1996). The Geology of Fluvial Deposits: Sedimentary Facies, Basin Analysis, and Petroleum Geology. Springer-Verlag. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-03237-4
  46. Moiola, R. J. & Weiser, D. (1968). Textural parameters: An evaluation. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 38, 45-53. https://doi.org/10.1306/74D718C5-2B21-11D7-8648000102C1865D
  47. Montañez, I. P. & Crossey, L. J. (1998). Diagenesis of sedimentary rocks. In G. N. Hanson (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences, (pp. 145–160). Springer.
  48. Moore, C. H. (1989). Carbonate Diagenesis and Porosity. Elsevier.
  49. Moore, C. H. & Wade, W. J. (2013). Carbonate Reservoirs: Porosity and Diagenesis in a Sequence Stratigraphic Framework (2nd ed.). Elsevier.
  50. Nikishin, A. M., Okay, A. I., Tüysüz, O., Demirer, A., Amelin, N. & Petrov, E. (2015a). The Black Sea basins structure and history: New model based on new deep penetration regional seismic data. Part 1: Basins structure and fill. Marine and Petroleum Geology, 59, 638-655. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2014.08.017
  51. Nikishin, A. M., Okay, A., Tüysüz, O., Demirer, A., Wannier, M., Amelin, N. & Petrov, E. (2015b). The Black Sea basins structure and history: New model based on new deep penetration regional seismic data. Part 2: Tectonic history and paleogeography. Marine and Petroleum Geology, 59, 656-670. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpetgeo.2014.08.018
  52. Okay, A. I. & Nikishin, A. M. (2015). Tectonic evolution of the southern margin of Laurasia in the Black Sea region. International Geology Review, 57(5-8), 1051-1076. https://doi.org/10.1080/00206814.2015.1010609
  53. Okay, A. I. & Tüysüz, O. (1999). Tethyan sutures of northern Turkey. In B. Durand et al. (Eds.), The Mediterranean Basins: Tertiary Extension within the Alpine Orogen (pp. 475–515). Geological Society of London. https://doi.org/10.1144/GSL.SP.1999.156.01.22
  54. Passega, R. (1964). Grain size characteristics by C-M pattern as a tool. Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, 34, 233-847. https://doi.org/10.1306/74D711A4-2B21-11D7-8648000102C1865D
  55. Pettijohn, F. J., Potter, P. E. & Siever, R. (1973). Sand and Sandstone. Springer.
  56. Pettijohn, F. J., Potter, P. E. & Siever, R. (2012). Sand and Sandstone. Springer Science & Business Media.
  57. Pettijohn, F.J., Potter, P. E. & Siever, R. (1987). Sand and Sandstone (2nd ed.). Springer-Verlag.
  58. Philcox, M. E. (1963). Banded calcite mudstone in the lower Carboniferous" reef" knolls of the Dublin Basin, Ireland. Journal of Sedimentary Research, 33(4), 904-913. https://doi.org/10.1306/74D70F6F-2B21-11D7-8648000102C1865D
  59. Platt, N. H., & Wright, V. P. (1992). Palustrine carbonates and the Florida Everglades; towards an exposure index for the fresh-water environment?. Journal of Sedimentary Research, 62(6), 1058-1071. https://doi.org/10.1306/D4267A4B-2B26-11D7-8648000102C1865D
  60. Powers, M. C. (1953). A new roundness scale for sedimentary particles. Journal of Sedimentary Research, 23(2), 117-119. https://doi.org/10.1306/D4269567-2B26-11D7-8648000102C1865D
  61. Rafferty, J. P. (Ed.). (2010). Climate and Climate Change. Britannica Educational Publishing.
  62. Raynaud, D., Jouzel, J., Barnola, J. M., Chappellaz, J., Delmas, R. J., & Lorius, C. (1993). The ice record of greenhouse gases. Science, 926-934. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.259.5097.926
  63. Reading, H. G. & Levell, B. K. (1996). Controls on the sedimentary rock record. In H. G. Reading (Ed.), Sedimentary Environments: Processes, Facies and Stratigraphy, (3rd ed.). Blackwell Science.
  64. Rech-Frollo, M. (1971). Les calcaires des couches rouges des alpes: Leur composition et leur origine. Sedimentary Geology, 6(1), 53-72. https://doi.org/10.1016/0037-0738(71)90026-1
  65. Reineck, H. E. & Singh, I. B., (1980). Depositional Sedimentary Environments. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-81498-3
  66. Robertson, A. H. F., Parlak, O. & Ustaömer, T. (2016). Permian–Recent palaeogeographical and tectonic development of Anatolia: Some recent contributions. International Journal of Earth Sciences, 105, 1–5. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00531-015-1247-2
  67. Robinson, A. G. (Ed.). (1997). Regional and Petroleum Geology of the Black Sea and Surrounding Region. AAPG Memoir, 68. https://doi.org/10.1306/M68612
  68. Rutherford, M. M., Banks, C., Hirst, P. P. & Robinson, A. G. (1992). The Mesozoic biostratigraphy of the Pontides. Unpublished Internal Report, BP Exploration, Middlesex, UK., 9 p.
  69. Sames, B., Wagreich, M., Conrad, C. P. & Iqbal, S. (2020). Aquifer-eustasy as the main driver of short-term sea-level fluctuations during Cretaceous hothouse climate phases. Geological Society of London Special Publications 498, 9-38. https://doi.org/10.1144/SP498-2019-105
  70. Schettino, A., & Turco, E. (2011). Tectonic history of the western Tethys since the Late Triassic. GSA Bulletin, 123(1–2), 89–105. https://doi.org/10.1130/B30064.1
  71. Scotese, C. R. & Schettino, A. (2017). Late Permian–Early Jurassic paleogeography of western Tethys and the world. Permo-Triassic Salt Provinces of Europe, North Africa and the Atlantic Margins, Tectonics and Hydrocarbon Potential. Elsevier. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-809417-4.00004-5
  72. Scotese, C. R. (2021). An atlas of Phanerozoic paleogeographic maps: the seas come in and the seas go out. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, 49(1), 679-728. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-081320-064052
  73. Scotese, C. R., Bambach, R. K., Barton, C., Van der Voo, R. & Ziegler, A. M. (1979). Paleozoic base maps The Journal of Geology 87(3), 217-277.
  74. Şen, G. (2021). Sedimentological and cyclostratigraphic analysis of the Çakrazboz Formation (Triassic) in Amasra-Kastamonu Region [Published PhD Dissertation]. Middle East Technical University Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences.
  75. Şengör, A. M. C. (1979). Mid-Mesozoic closure of Permo–Triassic Tethys and its implications. Nature, 279(14), 590-593. https://doi.org/10.1038/279590a0
  76. Şengör, A. M. C. (Ed.) (1989). Tectonic evolution of the Tethyan region. Nato Science Series C, Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-2253-2
  77. Şengör, A. M. C. (1990). Plate tectonics and orogenic research after 25 years: A Tethyan perspective. Earth-Science Reviews, 27(1-2), 1-201. https://doi.org/10.1016/0012-8252(90)90002-D
  78. Simmons, M. D., Tari, G. C. & Okay, A. I. (2018). Petroleum geology of the Black Sea: introduction. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 464(1), 1-18. https://doi.org/10.1144/SP464.15
  79. Sneed, E. D. & Folk, R. L. (1958). Pebbles in the lower Colorado River, Texas a study in particle morphogenesis. The Journal of Geology, 66(2), 114-150. https://www.jstor.org/stable/30058239
  80. Stewart, H. B. Jr. (1958). Sedimentary reflections on depositional environments in San Migue Lagoon, Baja California, Mexico. Bulletin of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, (42) 2567-2618. https://doi.org/10.1306/0BDA5BFA-16BD-11D7-8645000102C1865D
  81. Stolle, E. (2016). Çakraz Formation, Çamdağ area, NW Turkey: Early/mid-Permian age, Rotliegend (Germany) and Southern Alps (Italy) equivalent - a stratigraphic re-assessment via palynological long-distance correlation. Geological Journal, 51(2), 223-235. https://doi.org/10.1002/gj.2620
  82. Stow, D. A. (2005). Sedimentary Rocks in the Field: A color guide. Gulf Professional Publishing.
  83. Swart, P. K. (2015). The geochemistry of carbonate diagenesis: The past and future. Sedimentology, 62(6), 1233–1304. https://doi.org/10.1111/sed.12205
  84. Tucker, M. E. (1990). Diagenetic processes, products and environments. In M. E. Tucker & V. P. Wright (Eds.), Carbonate Sedimentology, (pp. 314–364). John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444314175.ch7
  85. Tucker, M. E. & Bathurst, R. G. (Eds.). (1990). Carbonate Diagenesis. John Wiley & Sons. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444304510
  86. Tucker, M. E. & Sparks, R. S. J. (2024). Fluvial–lacustrine interactions in the Marginal Triassic, Clevedon, Bristol Channel Basin, UK: Deposition, dolomitization and silicification. Geological Magazine, 161(e18). https://doi.org/10.1017/S0016756824000396
  87. Tucker, M. E. & Wright, V. P. (1990). Carbonate Sedimentology. Blackwell. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444314175
  88. Tüysüz, O. (2022). Geology of the Kurucaşile-Cide region, NW Türkiye. Bulletin of the Mineral Research and Exploration, 167(167), 149-178.
  89. Van Hinsbergen, D. J., Torsvik, T. H., Schmid, S. M., Maţenco, L. C., Maffione, M., Vissers, R. L.,. & Spakman, W. (2020). Orogenic architecture of the Mediterranean region and kinematic reconstruction of its tectonic evolution since the Triassic. Gondwana Research, 81, 79-229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2019.07.009
  90. Varol, B. & Akman, N. (1988). Geological map of the Amasra–Çakraz area, (No. 42). MTA.
  91. Verardo, D. J., Froelich, P. N. & McIntyre, A., (1990). Determination of organic carbon and nitrogen in marine sediments using the Carlo Erba NA-1500 Analyzer. Deep Sea Research Part A. Oceanographic Research Papers, 37(1), 157-165. https://doi.org/10.1016/0198-0149(90)90034-S
  92. Verrecchia, E. P. (2000). Fungi and sediments. In Riding, R. E. & Awramik, S.M. (Eds.) Microbial sediments. Springer Berlin Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-662-04036-2_9
  93. Verrecchia, E. P. (2007). Lacustrine and palustrine geochemical sediments. In Geochemical Sediments and Landscapes (pp. 298-329). Blackwell Publishing Oxford. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470712917.ch9
  94. Vollmer, T., Werner, R., Weber, M., Tougiannidis, N., Röhling, H. G. & Hambach, U. (2008). Orbital control on Upper Triassic Playa cycles of the Steinmergel-Keuper (Norian): A new concept for ancient playa cycles. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 267(1-2), 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2007.12.017
  95. Wagreich, M., Lein, R. & Sames, B. (2014). Eustasy, its controlling factors, and the limno-eustatic hypothesis–concepts inspired by Eduard Suess. Austrian Journal of Earth Sciences, 107(1), 115-131.
  96. Wang, Y., Sheng, H. F., He, Y., Wu, J. Y., Jiang, Y. X., Tam, N. F. Y. & Zhou, H. W. (2012). Comparison of the levels of bacterial diversity in freshwater, intertidal wetland, and marine sediments by using millions of illumina tags. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 78(23), 8264-8271. https://doi.org/10.1128/aem.01821-12
  97. Wright, V. P. (2009). Meteoric diagenesis. In M. E. Tucker & V. P. Wright (Eds.), Carbonate Sedimentology, (pp. 336–348). John Wiley & Sons.
  98. Wright, V. P., & Tucker, M. E. (1991). Calcretes. Blackwell Scientific Publications. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444304497
  99. Yilmaz, Y., Tüysüz, O., Yiğitbaş, E., Genç, Ş. C. & Şengor, A. M. C. (1997). Geology and tectonic evolution of the Pontides. In A. G. Robinson (Ed.), Regional and Petroleum Geology of the Black Sea and Surrounding Region. American Association of Petroleum Geologists. https://doi.org/10.1306/M68612C11
  100. Yılmazer, S., Topuz, G., Guillong, M., Okay, A. I., Demirkaya, İ. & Uzun, F. (2025). Revealing the early geological history of the İstanbul Zone (Far-East Avalonia) through zircon U-Pb-Hf isotopic data. Precambrian Research, 427, Article107855. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.precamres.2025.107855
  101. Zavala, C., Liu, H.-Q., Li, X.-B., Trobbiani, V., Li, Y., Arcuri, M. & Zorzano, A. (2024). High-frequency lacustrine sequence stratigraphy of clastic lakes: Lessons from ancient successions. Journal of Palaeogeography, 13(4), 621–645. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jop.2024.08.004.
  102. Zielinski, G. A., Germani, M. S., Larsen, G., Baillie, M. G., Whitlow, S., Twickler, M. S. & Taylor, K. (1995). Evidence of the Eldgjá (Iceland) eruption in the GISP2 Greenland ice core: relationship to eruption processes and climatic conditions in the tenth century. The Holocene, 5(2), 129-140. https://doi.org/10.1177/095968369500500201
  103. Adrian, R., O'Reilly, C. M., Zagarese, H., Baines, S. B., Hessen, D. O., Keller, W.,. & Winder, M. (2009). Lakes as sentinels of climate change. Limnology and oceanography, 54(6 part 2), 2283-2297. https://doi.org/10.4319/lo.2009.54.6_part_2.2283
  104. Van Hinsbergen, D. J., Torsvik, T. H., Schmid, S. M., Maţenco, L. C., Maffione, M., Vissers, R. L.,. & Spakman, W. (2020). Orogenic architecture of the Mediterranean region and kinematic reconstruction of its tectonic evolution since the Triassic. Gondwana Research, 81, 79-229. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2019.07.009